The Citron Compendium: The Citron (Etrog) Citrus medica L.: Science and Tradition

Description

This comprehensive book covers the theoretical and practical aspects of citron trees and fruit. The citron (Citrus medica L.), one of the three primary species ancestral to most citrus types, is used for traditional medicine and is highly revered in the Jewish religion during the Tabernacles feast, referred to by the name 'Etrog'. This book’s three sections address biology (botany, genomics, Chinese and Mediterranean citrons, diseases, pests, and horticulture), tradition (Talmudic discourse, mysticism, medicine, literature, art, food, and beverages) and history (archaeology, trade, grafting controversies); these sections are supplemented by a glossary and pictorial album. The 22 chapters, some new and some translated and considerably expanded from the 2018 Hebrew edition, were written by world-renowned specialists from Israel, Italy, France, the U.S.A., China and Australia. The book is written in an accessible scientific style aimed at a wide range of readers.   Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Contents Part I Citron Biology 1 The Biology of the Citron (Citrus medica L., Rutaceae-Aurantioideae-Aurantieae), its Hybrids and their Allies 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The Family Rutaceae 1.3 The Genus Citrus 1.3.1 Morphology, Anatomy and Phytochemistry 1.3.2 Pollination and Dispersal 1.3.3 Phylogeny 1.3.4 Palaeobotany and Archaeological Records 1.4 The Citron, Citrus medica 1.5 Citrus Classification 1.6 The Role of Citrus medica in Other Citrus Crops 1.7 Huanglongbing and the Future of the Citron Appendix—Formal Classification Citrus medica—Citrons Commercial Citrus with Citron Parentage and Grown in the Mediterranean References 2 Citron Genomics 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Citrus Genomics Overview 2.3 Sequencing Genomes of Major Citrus Groups 2.4 Citron is One of the 10 Ancestral Citrus Species, and a Parent of Many Acid Citrus Types 2.4.1 Genetic Studies Using Markers Derived from Nuclear and Chloroplast Sequences 2.5 Disease Resistance in Citrons 2.6 Polyembryony 2.7 Anthocyanin Production and Acidity in Citrons 2.8 Genes Determining Fruit Shape 2.9 Perspective References 3 Phytochemistry of the Citron 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Phenylpropanoids 3.3 Isoprenoids 3.3.1 Terpenes 3.3.2 Limonoids 3.3.3 Carotenoids 3.4 Chemotaxonomy of Citron References Part II Cultivation and Production 4 Selected Aspects of Commercial Production in Etrog Orchards 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Establishing an Etrog Orchard 4.2.1 Selection of Land 4.2.2 Preparation and Planting of Etrog Saplings 4.3 Irrigation and Fertilization of Commercial Etrog Orchards 4.4 Droughting Etrog Trees to Induce Flowering 4.5 Treatments for Pitam Maintenance 4.6 Treatments for Fruitlets and Young Fruits 4.7 Commercial Considerations and Calculations in Establishing an Etrog Orchard 4.8 Yield 4.9 Conclusions References 5 Preserving Etrog Quality After Harvest: Doctrine and Practice 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Treatments to Prevent Water Loss 5.3 Regulating Peel Color in Etrogim References 6 Citron Arthropod Pests in the Mediterranean, Their Origin and Notes on Their Biology and Management 6.1 The Origin of Citron Arthropod Pests 6.2 Mites 6.2.1 Aceria sheldoni (Ewing) 6.2.2 Brevipalpus californicus (Banks) 6.2.3 Eutetranychus orientalis (Klein) 6.2.4 Panonychus citri (McGregor) 6.2.5 Phyllocoptruta oleivora (Ashmead) 6.2.6 Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) 6.2.7 Tetranychus urticae Koch 6.3 Thrips 6.3.1 Chaetanaphothrips orchidii (Moulton) 6.3.2 Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) 6.3.3 Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood 6.4 Leafhoppers 6.4.1 Asymmetrasca decedens (Paoli) 6.5 Whiteflies 6.5.1 Aleurocanthus spiniferus (Quaintance) 6.6 Aphids 6.6.1 Aphis craccivora Koch 6.6.2 Aphis gossypii Glover 6.6.3 Aphis spiraecola Patch 6.6.4 Myzus persicae (Sulzer) 6.6.5 Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscolombe) 6.7 Scale Insects 6.7.1 Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) 6.7.2 Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus 6.7.3 Icerya purchasi Maskell 6.7.4 Parlatoria pergandii Comstock 6.7.5 Planococcus citri (Risso) 6.8 Fruit Flies 6.8.1 Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) 6.9 Fruit Moths 6.9.1 Apomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) 6.9.2 Cryptoblabes gnidiella (Millière) 6.9.3 Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton 6.9.4 Prays citri (Millière) 6.9.5 Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) 6.10 The Origin of Citron Pests 6.11 Pest Management in Citron Orchards 6.12 Serious Coming Threats 6.12.1 Aculops pelekassi (Keifer) 6.12.2 Trioza erytreae (Del Guercio) and Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, Vectors of the Citrus Greening Disease 6.12.3 Anoplophora chinensis (Forster) References 7 Diseases of Etrog Citron and Other Citrus Trees 7.1 Introduction 7.2 A Brief History of Plant Pathology with an Emphasis on Citrus 7.2.1 The Impact of Phytophthora Epidemics on World Citrus 7.3 Fungal and Fungal-Like Diseases 7.4 Major Fungal Diseases of Etrog 7.4.1 Mal Secco 7.4.2 Citrus Diseases Caused by Phytophthora 7.5 Fungal Diseases of Leaves and Fruit 7.5.1 Alternaria Brown Spot 7.5.2 Anthracnose 7.5.3 Septoria Spot 7.5.4 Melanose 7.5.5 Greasy Spot 7.5.6 Citrus Gray Mold 7.6 Root Diseases 7.6.1 Armillaria Root Rot 7.6.2 Dry Root Rot 7.7 Bacterial Diseases 7.7.1 Citrus Blast and Black Pit 7.7.2 Citrus Stubborn Disease/Little-Leaf (Alelet) 7.8 Virus Diseases 7.8.1 Tristeza 7.8.2 Citrus Variegation/Citrus Crinkly Leaf/Citrus Leaf Rugose 7.8.3 Concave Gum 7.8.4 Psorosis 7.8.5 Citrus Leaf Blotch 7.8.6 Citrus Vein Enation 7.9 Citrus Viroid Diseases—The Etrog Connection 7.9.1 Citrus Exocortis Viroid 7.9.2 Cachexia 7.9.3 Citrus Bent Leaf 7.9.4 Citrus Dwarfing 7.10 Citrus Diseases Exotic to the Mediterranean Area 7.10.1 Citrus Black Spot 7.10.2 Citrus Scab 7.10.3 Citrus Bacterial Canker 7.10.4 Citrus Variegated Chlorosis 7.10.5 Citrus Greening—Huánglóngbìng 7.10.6 Witches’ Broom 7.10.7 Citrus Chlorotic Dwarf 7.10.8 Citrus Yellow Vein Clearing 7.10.9 Citrus Tatter Leaf 7.10.10 Leprosis 7.10.11 Citrus Sudden Death 7.10.12 Satsuma Dwarf and Related Diseases 7.10.13 Citrus Yellow Mosaic 7.10.14 Citrus Bark Cracking 7.10.15 Citrus Viroid V 7.10.16 Citrus Viroid VI 7.10.17 Citrus Viroid VII 7.11 Conclusions References 8 The Citron (Citrus medica L.) in China 8.1 Introduction 8.2 History and Culture 8.3 Nomenclature 8.4 Current Citron Cultivation in China 8.4.1 Propagation 8.4.2 Diseases, Pests, and Freeze Damage 8.4.3 Medicinal Uses and Properties 8.4.4 Ornamental Cultivation 8.4.5 Culinary Uses and Processing 8.5 Major Cultivars of Chinese Citron and Select Citron Hybrids 8.5.1 Common (Non-fingered) Citron Cultivars 8.5.2 Fingered Citron Cultivars 8.5.3 Types Intermediate Between Common and Fingered Citron 8.5.4 “Wild” Citrons 8.5.5 Citron Hybrids 8.6 Germplasm Status; Regional and Global Perspective References 9 The Citron in Italy and Its Cultivation in Calabria 9.1 Origin and History 9.2 The Citron in Calabria 9.3 The Jewish Tradition 9.4 Citron Cultivars 9.4.1 Acid Citrons 9.4.2 Sweet Citrons 9.4.3 Semi-acid Citrons 9.4.4 Citron Lemons 9.5 Chemical and Nutraceutical Characterization of ‘Liscia di Diamante’ Fruit 9.5.1 Chemical Constituents 9.5.2 Antioxidant Properties 9.5.3 Potential Health Effects 9.6 Citron Cultivation in Calabria 9.6.1 Rootstocks 9.6.2 Farming Systems in Calabria Agriculture 9.7 Consortia and Cooperatives. A Troubled History References 10 The Citron in Corsica 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Citron in the Ancient and Medieval Western Mediterranean 10.3 Beginnings of Corsican Citron Cultivation 10.4 ‘Corsican’ Citron Morphology 10.5 The Genetic Origin of ‘Corsican’ Citron 10.6 ‘Citron Fever’ 10.7 Corsican Citron Plantings and Production 10.8 Citron Growing Areas 10.9 Historical Horticultural Practices 10.10 Diseases, Pests, and Freezes 10.11 Brining and Candying 10.12 Structure of the Citron Trade 10.13 Corsican Confectioners 10.14 Causes of the Decline 10.15 ‘Vittime’: Citrons Harvested for Jewish Ritual Use 10.16 Citron Cultivation on Corsica Today 10.17 Citron Liqueur (Cédratine) 10.18 Citrons Other than ‘Corsican’ on Corsica 10.19 Bioindexing Using ‘Etrog’ Citron 10.20 The Citron in Corsican Culture 10.21 Citron’s Place on Corsica Today References 11 The Citron in the United States 11.1 Introduction of the Citron and Its Spread in Colonial America 11.2 Increase in Consumption of Candied Citron 11.3 Beginnings of Citron Cultivation in California 11.4 The “Citron of Commerce” 11.5 Attempts to Import Elite Mediterranean Citron Cultivars 11.6 Early 20th Century Citron Plantings in California 11.7 Demand for Etrogs During World War I 11.8 California Citron Cultivation, 1923–95 11.9 A Successful Etrog Grower in Central California 11.10 Citron Germplasm in California 11.11 Fingered Citron: From Asia to California 11.12 Citron Cultivation in Florida 11.13 Effects of Tariff Rates on Citron Cultivation and Processing in the United States 11.14 Rise of Citron Cultivation in Puerto Rico 11.15 Decline of Citron Cultivation in Puerto Rico 11.16 Perspectives References 12 The Citron in Mediterranean Food and Beverages 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Etrog Citron Candying Procedure 12.3 Citron Jam 12.4 Sweet and Savory Food: From Tradition to Gastronomic Innovation 12.5 Savory Dishes 12.6 Liqueurs and Syrups References Part III Tradition 13 ‘Fruit of the Goodly Trees’: The Talmudic Discourse on the Etrog Citron 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Structure of the Etrog Citron 13.3 Identifying the ‘Fruit of a Hadar Tree’ 13.4 Etrog Paragraphs in the Mishnah 13.5 Dryness 13.6 Defects and Blemishes 13.7 Chazazit—Scab 13.8 Pitma and Okets 13.9 Peeled 13.10 Size of the Etrog 13.11 Color Disqualifications 13.12 Epilogue References 14 Theophrastus to the Present: The Citron in Medicine 14.1 Introduction References 15 The Etrog Citron in Art 15.1 Introduction 15.2 The Etrog in Jewish Art in Antiquity and the Byzantine Period 15.3 The Etrog in Christian Art in the Land of Israel 15.4 Etrogim in Mosaics of the Transjordan 15.5 The Place of the Etrog in Byzantine Art 15.6 The Etrog in Muslim Era Art 15.7 Etrog Illustrations in Ashkenazi Manuscripts 15.8 The Etrog in Christian Renaissance Paintings 15.9 The Etrog in Works by Jewish Artists in the Modern Era 15.10 A Box for the Etrog 15.11 Conclusion References 16 The Etrog Citron in Rabbinic and Kabbalistic Literature 16.1 In Antiquity 16.2 In Kabbalah 16.3 In Folklore 16.4 In the Community 16.5 Joining the Species References 17 From ‘an Etrog’ to ‘One’s Etrog’: A Literary Analysis of S. Y. Agnon’s Story 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Between the Etrog and ‘Etrogo’: A Study of S. Y. Agnon’s Story 17.3 The Story Part IV History 18 The History of Citron: Botanical Remains and Ancient Art and Texts 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Archaeo-Botanical Evidence 18.3 The Citron in the Hebrew Bible and Jewish Tradition 18.4 The Citron in Greco-Roman Sources 18.5 Ancient Art Artifacts 18.6 Summary References 19 The Etrog Citron Trail to the North: Genoa and Trieste References 20 The Corfu Etrog Citron Polemic 20.1 The Corfu Etrog Enters the Market 20.2 The Controversy in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century 20.3 The 1846 Controversy 20.4 Those Who Banned the Corfu Etrog 20.5 Those Permitting the Corfu Etrog in 1846 20.6 End of the 1846 Controversy 20.7 In the Wake of the Controversy 20.8 The 1874–1878 Controversy 20.9 Preferring Israeli Etrogim Over Corfu Etrogim 20.10 The Continued Controversy Over Corfu Etrogim 20.11 Pamphlets for and Against 20.12 Israeli Etrogim 20.13 Validity of Israeli Etrogim in General, and Jaffa Etrogim in Particular 20.14 Rabbi Chaim Elazar Wachs and Israel’s Etrogim 20.15 Quenching the Controversy in Europe and Israel 20.16 The Controversy in the 1880s 20.17 Hovevei Zion and Israeli Etrogim 20.18 The Corfu Etrog in Poland’s Hassidic World 20.19 The End of the Controversy and the Corfu Blood Libel References 21 The Grafted Etrog Citron Controversy 21.1 Introduction 21.2 What is Grafting? 21.3 Grafting in Halakhah 21.4 Grafting the Etrog: A Problem Arises 21.5 Why is Grafting not Mentioned in Talmudic Sources? 21.6 The Main Halakhic Positions 21.7 The Mystery of Grafting 21.8 Identifying the Grafted Fruits: Distinctive Features and Credibility 21.9 The Grafted Etrog Lineage 21.10 Etrogim of the Land of Israel and the Grafting Dilemma 21.11 The Search for the Original Etrog 21.12 Etrog Hybridized with Other Citrus Species 21.13 The Situation Today References 22 Etrog Citrons of the Land of Israel in Modern Times 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Etrog Grafting as a Motive for Etrog Cultivation in the Modern Era 22.3 The Introduction of Greek Etrogim to the Land of Israel 22.4 Embellishment of the Old, Traditional Etrog with Foreign Etrogim 22.5 Rav Kook and Etrog Growing in Eretz Israel 22.6 Growing Traditional Land of Israel Etrogim 22.7 Maharil Diskin––Braverman Etrog 22.8 Globman-Kibilewitz and Wadi Kelt Etrogim 22.9 Jericho Etrogim 22.10 Urdang (Hadera) Etrogim 22.11 Chazon Ish Etrogim 22.12 Shlomai Etrogim 22.13 Features of the Original Land of Israel Etrog 22.14 Summary References Pictorial Album of Israeli Etrog Citron Cultivars Glossary*