Design of Rockets and Space Launch Vehicles

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Cover Copyright CONTENTS PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION FOREWORD ABOUT THE AUTHORS TESTIMONIALS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 Launch Vehicles: Introduction, Operation, and the Design Process 1.1 Introduction to Launch Vehicles 1.2 Anatomy of a Launch Vehicle 1.2.1 Surface-Launched Vehicle 1.2.2 Air-Launched Vehicle 1.3 The Phases of Launch and Ascent 1.3.1 Vertical Climb 1.3.2 Roll Program 1.3.3 Pitch Program and Vehicle Turning 1.3.4 Strap-on Separation 1.3.5 Max-Air / Max- q / Buffet 1.3.6 First-Step Shutdown 1.3.7 Staging and Separation 1.3.8 Upper-Step Ignition 1.3.9 Payload Fairing Jettison 1.3.10 Upper-Step Shutdown 1.4 Typical Launch Vehicle Mission and Mission Elements 1.5 The Typical Launch Vehicle Design Process 1.6 Launch Sites 1.7 Launch Site Selection Criteria 1.7.1 Continental U.S. Launch Sites 1.7.2 Other U.S. Launch Sites 1.7.3 European Launch Sites 1.7.4 Other Launch Sites 1.8 The Space Industry 1.9 Summary References Further Reading 1.10 Assignment: Launch Vehicle System Report 2 A Technical History of Space Launch Vehicles 2.1 Rockets in the Early 20th Century 2.2 World War II and the Development of the V-2 2.3 The Cold War, ICBMs, and the First Space Launch Vehicles 2.3.1 Soviet and Russian Developments R-7 Semyorka Soyuz Evolution Proton Zenit Angara 2.3.2 U.S. Developments 2.3.2.1 The Vanguard 2.3.2.2 The U. S. Ballistic Missiles 2.3.3 The Red stone IRBM and Jupiter Launch Vehicle 2.3.4 The Jupiter A and Juno SLV 2.3.5 Thor IRBM 2.3.6 Atlas ICBM Centaur Upper Step 2.3.7 Titan ICBM 2.3.8 Minuteman ICBM Family 2.3.9 Pea cekeeper 2.3.10 Minotaur and Taurus 2.3.11 Polaris, Poseidon, and Trident 2.3.12 Scout 2.3.13 Pegasus 2.4 The Moon Race 2.5 The Space Shuttle NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS) 2.6 Launch Vehicle Oddities and Dead-Ends 2.6.1 German A-9 / A-10 Amerika 2.6.2 North American X-15 2.6.3 McDonnell Douglas DC-X 2.6.4 Lockheed Martin X-33 VentureStar 2.7 Other Launch Vehicles from Around the World 2.7.1 Chinese Launch Vehicles 2.7.2 European Efforts 2.7.3 India 2.7.4 Japan 2.8 Commercial Launch Vehicles: The Future? 2.8.1 SpaceX Launch Vehicles Falcon 1 Falcon 9 Starship / Super Heavy 2.8.2 Vulcan Centaur: A Competitor to Falcon 9? 2.8.3 Another Competitor to Falcon 9? 2.9 Small Launch Vehicles 2.9.1 The Rocket Lab Electron 2.9.2 The Virgin Orbit LauncherOne 2.9.3 The Astra Rocket 3? 2.9.4 Firefly Alpha References Further Reading 3 Missions, Orbits, and Energy Requirements 3.1 Launch Vehicle Requirements Derive from Payload and Mission 3.1.1 LV Ascent Losses 3.1.2 LV Maneuvering Requirements 3.1.3 LV Performance Gains 3.2 Orbits, Orbital Parameters, and Trajectories 3.2.1 Introduction to Orbits 3.2.2 Classic Orbital Elements 3.3 Spacecraft Mission Orbits and Trajectories 3.3.1 Required Orbital Injection Speed 3.3.1.1 Circular Orbit Speed 3.3.1.2 Elliptical Orbit Speed 3.3.1.3 Escape Orbit Speed 3.4 Required Energy to Be Delivered for Orbit 3.4.1 Benefits from the Rotation of the Earth 3.4.2 Estimating Gravity Loss 3.4.2.1 Estimating Gravity Loss: Conservation of Energy 3.4.2.2 Estimating Gravity Loss: Statistical Estimation 3.4.2.3 Estimating Gravity Loss: Exact Methods 3.4.3 Estimating Aerodynamic Drag Loss 3.4.4 Drag Loss: Exact Method 3.4.4.1 Thoughts on Minimizing Drag Losses 3.4.5 Propulsion Losses 3.4.6 Application to Multiple Steps 3.4.7 Steering Losses 3.4.8 Summing Up the Losses 3.4.9 Combined Launch Vehicle Performance Estimation 3.5 Determining the Launch Vehicle Velocity Vector 3.5.1 Determining the Required Launch Vector 3.5.2 Air-Launch Systems 3.6 Direct Orbit 3.6.1 Launch Directly East 3.6.2 Launch in Other Directions 3.6.3 Calculation of Burnout Azimuth Angles 3.6.4 Polar and Retrograde Orbits 3.7 Desired Inclination Less than Launch Latitude 3.7.1 Launch Vehicle Lateral Maneuver 3.7.2 Orbital Inclination Change 3.8 Launch Vehicle Performance Curves 3.9 Launch Windows 3.9.1 Launch Window Duration I: Orbital Mi ssions 3.9.2 Launch Window Duration II: Pork Chop Plots 3.9.3 Launch Window Example: Galileo References 3.10 Example Problems Required Vehicle Performance 4 Propulsion 4.1 Combustion 4.2 The Thrust Equation and Rocket Equation 4.2.1 Exhaust Velocity 4.2.2 Rocket Performance: Total and Specific Impulse 4.3 The Rocket Equation 4.3.1 Propellant Mass Fraction and Total Impulse 4.3.2 Thrust-to-weight ratio and burn time 4.3.3 Summary of Rocket Engine Parameters 4.4 Solid-Propellant Motors 4.4.1 Basic Configuration 4.4.2 SRM Types and Burn Rates 4.4.3 Thrust Profile and Grain Shape 4.4.4 SRM Propellant Additives 4.4.5 SRM Exhaust Toxicity 4.5 Liquid-Propellant Engines 4.6 Examples of Rocket Engine Performance 4.6.1 SRM Performance 4.6.2 Liquid Engine Performance 4.7 Rocket Engine Power Cycles 4.7.1 Gas Generator Cycle 4.7.2 Staged Combustion Cycle 4.7.3 Expander Cycle 4.7.4 Electric Pump-Fed Cycle 4.7.5 Pressure-Fed Cycle 4.8 Aerospike Engines 4.9 Hybrid Rockets References 4.10 Example Problems 5 Launch Vehicle Performance and Staging 5.1 The Three Categories of Launch Vehicle Mass 5.2 Finding a Rocket’s Speed Change in Free Space 5.3 Burnout Speed 5.4 Single-Stage-to-Orbit 5.5 Staging 5.5.1 Types of Launch Vehicle Staging 5.6 Calculation of Speed Supplied by a Multistage Rocket 5.7 Payload Ratio 5.8 Unrestricted Staging Pitfalls of the Lagrangian “Optimization” Procedure 5.9 Gross Mass vs. Staging Speed for Families of TSTO LVs with Differing Propellants 5.10 All-Hydrogen Saturn V? 5.11 Parallel Burns and Staging 5.11.1 Parallel Staging Performance 5.11.2 Parallel Staging Procedures 5.11.3 Parallel Stage Enhanced Performance 5.12 Launch Vehicle Design Sensitivities 5.12.1 Tradeoff Ratio Calculation 5.12.2 How Tradeoffs / Sensitivity Derivatives Are Used 5.12.3 Inert Mass Tradeoff Ratio 5.12.4 Propellant Mass Tradeoff Ratio 5.12.5 Rocket Engine Specific Impulse Tradeoff 5.12.6 Improved Saturn IB Performance by Adding Propellant 5.12.7 Space Shuttle Tradeoff Ratios 5.12.7.1 A Practical Application of Tradeoff Ratios: Space Shuttle Application 1 5.12.7.2 Shuttle Application 2: Carrying Out Missions to ISS 5.12.7.3 Shuttle Application 3: High-Performance SRBs 5.12.7.4 Falcon 9 Application: Add Propellant Without Adding Structure Mass! 5.12.8 Another Method to Calculate Tradeoff Ratios 5.13 Some Useful Results: Determining Component Mass Values 5.14 Summary References 5.15 Exercises Assignment: Launch Vehicle Performance Problems 6 Ascent Trajectory Analysis and Optimization 6.1 Vertical Flight in Gravity, No Atmosphere 6.1.1 Gravity Loss 6.1.2 Burnout Altitude 6.1.3 Coast After Burnout 6.1.4 Summary 6.2 Inclined Flight in Gravity, No Atmosphere 6.2.1 Equations for In clined Flight in Gravity, No Atmosphere 6.2.2 Vertical Flight in Atmosphere, with Gravity 6.2.3 Thrusting Equations 6.2.4 Coasting Equations 6.3 General Flight with Gravity, Atmosphere Effects 6.3.1 Launch Vehicle Boost Trajectory Coordinate System 6.3.2 Launch Vehicle Equations of Motion 6.3.3 Forces on a Launch Vehicle due to Aerodynami c, Thrust, and Steering Forces 6.3.4 Torques on a Launch Vehicle Due to Aerodynamic, Thrust, and Steering Forces 6.4 Aerodynamics of Launch Vehicles 6.4.1 Assessment of Launch Vehicle Drag 6.4.2 Assessment of Launch Vehicle Lift 6.4.3 Ascent Aerodynamic Forces, Propulsion Models, and Gravity 6.4.4 Speed or Energy Losses During Launch 6.4.5 Changing the Flight Path Angle \gamma 6.4.6 Events During Liftoff and Ascent 6.4.7 The Gravity-Turn Trajectory 6.4.8 Other Methods of Guidance 6.4.9 The General Ascent Problem 6.5 Getting to Orbit 6.6 Launch Vehicle Trajectory Simulation 6.6.1 Notes on Numerical Integration 6.7 Trajectory Optimization 6.7.1 Definition and Purpose of Trajectory Optimization 6.7.2 The First Optimization Problem: The Brachistochrone or Shortest Time Problem 6.7.3 Optimization Software 6.8 Some Examples of Launch Profiles and Trajectories 6.8.1 LV Example: Delta III Launch to Geostationary Transfer Orbit 6.8.2 What Is Lofting, and Why Does It Occur? 6.8.3 The Space Shuttle Ascent: Complex, Many Constraints, Nonoptimal Trajectories 6.9 Some Typical Launch Trajectories 6.9.1 Shuttle STS-122 Ascent Trajectory 6.9.2 Saturn V Ascent Trajectory 6.9.3 Saturn V Second Step (S-II) Variable Mixture-Ratio Scheme 6.9.4 Mu-3-S-2 (Japan) 6.9.5 Air-Launched Pegasus 6.10 Conclusion References Further Reading Online Simulation Software Trajectory Data 6.11 Exercises 1. Apollo Lunar Module Ascent Simulation 2. Large Hydrolox Single-Stage-to-Orbit Simulation 3. Launch Vehicle Trajectory Optimization Using GPOPS-II Software 7 Space Launch Vehicle Structures and Layout 7.1 The Thor IRBM 7.2 The Delta II: Evolved from Thor 7.3 Atlas Takes Tank Structure Principle to Extremes 7.4 The Mighty Saturns 7.5 The Saturn V 7.6 Another Way to Save Mass: Tank Dome Shapes 7.7 Spherical vs Cylindrical Tanks: Which Have Less Mass? 7.8 The Space Shuttle 7.9 Delta IV 7.10 Engine Configurations and Other Design Layout Considerations 7.10.1 Engine Configurations 7.10.2 Launch Vehicle Symmetry 7.10.3 Attachment of Strap-Ons and External Items 7.11 Payload Accommodations 7.11.1 Payload Attach Fitting 7.11.2 Ridesharing 7.11.3 Payload Fairings 7.11.4 Asymmetric Payload Fairings 7.12 Launch Vehicle Structure Types 7.12.1 Skin and Stringer Construction 7.12.2 Sandwich Construction 7.12.3 Integrally Machined Stiffeners 7.13 Structural Materials 7.13.1 Metallic Materials 7.13.2 Composite Materials 7.13.3 Miracle Materials References Further Reading 8 Sizing, Inboard Profile, Mass Properties 8.1 Inboard Profile 8.1.1 Vehicle Sizing and Layout Process 8.2 Vehicle or Step Mass Calculations 8.3 Liquid Propulsion System Real-Life Additions to Mass and Volume 8.3.1 Liquid Propulsion System “Real- Life” Additions Liquid Propellant Mass Buildup Startup Liquid Propellant Mass Residual Liquid Propellant Mass Total Liquid Propellant Mass Individual Liquid Propellant Masses 8.3.2 Needed Liquid Propellant Tank Volumes “Ideal” Liquid Propellant Tank Volumes Needed Liquid Propellant Tank Volumes 8.3.3 Other Liquid Propellant Volume Changes to Consider Propellant Densification Volume Changes Due to Pressurization Liquid Propellant Boil-off Cryogenic Upper-Stage Engine Startup Non-Aluminum, Nonlinear CTE-Material Tanks 8.3.4 Tank Sizing Volume of “Ideal” Tanks Some Comments on Tank Shape and Sizing Other Propulsion System Factors Influencing Vehicle Layout 8.4 Other Launch Vehicle Components 8.5 Solid Propulsion System Sizing 8.5.1 Solid Propulsion System Initial Sizing 8.5.2 Solid Propulsion System With \delta v Specified 8.5.3 Solid Propulsion System With Specified Total Impulse 8.5.4 Solid Propellant Volume Calculation Solid Propulsion System Real-Life Additions to Volume Solid Propulsion System Volume 8.6 Comments about Upper Steps and Payload Fairings 8.6.1 Upper Step Layouts 8.6.2 Payload Fairings 8.7 Mass Estimation Process 8.7.1 Estimation of Liquid Propellant Tank Masses 8.7.2 Cryogenic Tank Insulation Mass 8.7.3 Masses of Thin-Shelled Structures 8.7.3.1 Use of Composite Materials 8.7.4 Masses of Other Structures and Components 8.7.5 Rocket Engine and Thrust Structure Mass Estimation Engine Mass Thrust Structure Gimbal Mass 8.7.6 Mass of Other Items Payload Attach Fitting / Launch Vehicle Adapter Avionics Mass Electrical Wiring Summary 8.7.7 Engine Dimensioning Calculations 8.7.7.1 Solid Propulsion Motor Mass Estimation 8.7.7.2 Mass Estimation for More Complex Shapes 8.7.7.3 Mass Properties 8.7.7.4 Coordinate Systems 8.7.7.5 Mass Properties Calculations 8.7.7.6 Some Comments About Engine Selection 8.7.7.7 Moment of Inertia Calculations 8.8 Calculation of Tank or Shell Thicknesses 8.8.1 A Vehicle Loaded with Propellants References Additional references 8.9 Exercises: Sizing, Inboard Profile, and Mass Properties of TSTO LV 9 Ground and Flight Loads and Analysis 9.1 Launch Vehicle Load Cases 9.1.1 Transportation Loads 9.1.2 Calculation of Loads 9.1.3 Distributed Loads 9.1.4 Axial Forces and Horizontal Drag Loads 9.1.5 Ground Wind Load Calculation 9.1.5.1 Ground Winds 9.1.5.2 Simplified Ground Winds Load Calculation Procedure 9.1.5.3 Calculation of Ground Axial Loads 9.1.5.4 Ground Wind Loads Analysis on Saturn V 9.1.5.5 Calculation of Shear Forces 9.1.5.6 Calculation of Internal Moments 9.1.5.7 Calculation of Axial Loads 9.1.5.8 Summary of Ground Loads Calculation 9.1.5.9 Notes on Ground Load Calculations 9.1.6 Calculation of Flight Loads 9.1.6.1 Do Launch Vehicles Really Fly at an Angle of Attack? 9.1.6.2 Calculation of Angle of Attack 9.1.6.3 Shear, Bending, and Axial Loads in Flight Due to Wind Shear 9.1.6.4 Obtaining Aerodynamic Force Data Comments on Nose Cone Shapes and Conical Flares (Tapering Skirts) 9.1.6.5 Launch Vehicle Pressure Coefficients 9.1.6.6 Calculation of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments on Vehicle 9.2 Example: Max-q Air Load Calculation for Saturn V / Apollo 11 (SA-506) 9.2.1 Saturn V’s Mass at max-q 9.2.2 Acceleration Magnitude During max-q 9.2.3 Saturn V Side Air Loads 9.2.4 Saturn V Supersonic Fin Lift Anal ysis 9.2.5 Lateral Acceleration Due to Air Loads and Engine Gimbaling 9.2.6 Inertia Relief 9.2.7 Did the Saturn V Need Fins? 9.2.8 Saturn V Max-q Axial Loads 9.3 Load Curves Rules of Thumb 9.4 Global vs. Local Loads 9.5 Real Calculation of Vehicle Loads 9.6 Dealing with High-Altitude Winds 9.7 Design Issues for Ascent Phase 9.8 Load Relief During Launch 9.9 Endnote References Further Reading 9.10 Exercises Problem 1: Ground Wind Load s, Shear, Moment, and Axial Load Calculation Problem 2: Launch Vehicle Max-q Flight Loads Calculations 10 Launch Vehicle Stress Analysis 10.1 Strength and Stress Analysis 10.1.1 Stress (and Loads) Vocabulary 10.1.1.1 Types of Stress 10.1.1.2 Stress Subscripts and Material Properties 10.1.2 Forces, Geometr y, and Moments 10.2 Stress Deter mination Using External Loads 10.2.1 Cylinder Analysis Approach 10.2.1.1 Calculation of a Cylinder’s Cross- Sectional Area 10.2.1.2 Calculation of a Cylinder Cross-Section’s Area Moment of Inertia I 10.2.1.3 Stress Calculation 10.2.1.4 Minimum Gauge Issues 10.2.2 A Design Consideration: Relative Tank Position 10.3 Allowable Stresses Based on Stability (Buckling) Criteria 10.3.1 Critical Stresses and Buckling 10.3.1.1 Stability of Flared Skirt or Frustum 10.3.2 Ways to Increase Allowable Critical Axial Stress 10.3.3 Structural Methods to Increase Critical Axial Stress 10.4 Effect of Internal Pressure on Stresses 10.4.1 Internal Pressure Adds Load Capability 10.4.1.1 Pressure-Stabilized Structures 10.4.1.2 Bulkhead Reversal 10.4.1.3 Hydrostatic Pressure 10.4.2 Other Factors to Consider Concerning Internal Pressure 10.4.2.1 Geysering 10.4.2.2 Other Layout Considerations 10.5 Determining the Overall Stress State 10.5.1 Stress Analysis Summary 10.6 Real World Detailed Stress Analysis 10.6.1 This Is Just the Start of Stress Anal ysis 10.6.2 The Three Ingredients Needed for Stress Analysis 10.6.3 Finite-Element Modeling 10.6.4 FEM Updates 10.7 Summary: Simple Rules for LV Structures Further Reading 10.8 Exercises Homework Problem 1: Aluminum Beverage Container Buckling Stress Calculations Homework Problem 2: LV Stress Calculations 11 Launch Vehicle and Payload Environments: Vibration, Shock, Acoustic, and Thermal Issues 11.1 Mechanical Loads 11.1.1 Engine Startups and Cutoffs 11.1.2 Separation Events 11.1.3 Pyrotechnic Shocks 11.2 Acoustic Environment 11.2.1 Ignition Overpressure 11.2.2 High Acoustic Environments 1: Liftoff 11.2.3 High Acoustic Environments 2: Flight 11.2.4 Buffet Loads 11.2.4.1 Launch Vehicle Buffet Pressure Spectra 11.3 Launch Vehicle Thermal Environment 11.3.1 Base Heating 11.3.2 Convective Thermal Environment During Boost 11.3.3 Saturn V Flow Separation 11.3.4 Thermal Protection Systems 11.4 Payload Environment: The Spacecraft’s Point of View 11.5 Spacecraft Structure Design Verification Process 11.5.1 Coupled-Loads Analysis 11.5.2 After Coupled Loads Analysis: What Happens? 11.5.3 Payload Natural Frequencies != LV Natural Frequencies 11.5.4 Payload Isolation: Helps with Much of the Shock and Vibration 11.5.5 Free-Free Natural Frequency Calculations 11.5.6 LV Frequency Considerations 11.5.6.1 Example Stiffness Design Factors: Atlas V 11.5.7 Payload Acoustic Environments Acoustic Suppression 11.5.8 Payload Pressure Environment 11.5.9 Payload Thermal Loads 11.5.10 When Should the PLF Be Jettisoned? 11.5.11 On-Orbit Thermal Environment 11.6 Summary References Further Reading 11.7 Exercise 12 Launch Vehicle Stability and Control; LV Vibration and Instabilities 12.1 Guidance and Navigation vs Attitude Control 12.1.1 Vehicle Coordinate System 12.1.2 Rotations 12.1.2.1 Euler Angles 12.1.2.2 Quaternions 12.1.2.3 Measuring Rotation Angles and Calculating Attitude and Position 12.1.2.3.1 Method 1: Inertial/Stabilized Platform 12.1.2.3.2 Method 2: Inertial Measurement Unit 12.1.2.3.3 Method 3: Global Positioning System (GPS) 12.2 Stability and Control 12.2.1 Locating Center of Pressure 12.2.2 LV Flight Control System Elements 12.2.2.1 Thrust Vector Control 12.2.2.1.1 Types of Control Effectors (Actuators) 12.2.2.1.2 Using Engine Exhaust for Steering 12.2.2.1.3 Aerodynamic Controls for Steering 12.2.2.1.4 Typical Thrust Vector Control System Requirements 12.2.2.1.4.1 Thrust Vector Control System Time Response 12.2.2.1.4.2 Thrust Vector Control System Angular Motion 12.2.2.2 Engine and Propellant Tank Positioning Engine Positioning Propellant Tank Positioning 12.2.2.3 Reducing Actuation Loads 12.2.3 Three Axis Control 12.3 Controlled Vehicle Equations of Motion 12.3.1 Vehicle Coordinate Systems 12.3.2 Trajectory Variable Definitions 12.3.3 Vehicle Force and Torque Definitions 12.3.4 Vehicle Steering 12.3.5 Vehicle Equations of Motion: Translation 12.3.5.1 Dealing with Equations of Motion and Block Diagrams 12.3.5.2 Pitch-Plane Motion Simplifications 12.3.5.3 Understanding Poles and Zeros 12.3.6 Control System Performance Rules of Thumb 12.3.7 Varying Parameters, Including Aerodynamic Coefficients and Structural Dynamics 12.3.8 Engine Angle Response to Wind Shear 12.4 Launch Vehicle Structural Vibrations and Instabilities 12.4.1 Flexible Structure, Body Bending 12.4.2 Tail Wags Dog Motion 12.4.3 Propellant Slosh 12.4.3.1 Modeling Slosh Effects 12.4.3.2 Alleviating Slosh 12.5 Propulsion Instabilities 12.5.1 Pogo 12.5.1.1 Pogo Instability Explained 12.5.1.2 Pogo Suppression 12.5.2 Resonant Burn Oscillations 12.6 Summary References Further Reading 12.7 Exercises: Vibration and TVC Analysis 13 Launch Vehicle Manufacturing 13.1 Launch Vehicle Fabrication 13.2 Saturn I Second Step (S-IV) Manufacturing Process 13.3 Composite Structure Fabrication 13.4 Manufacturing: The Future 13.5 Vehicle Stacking and Assembly 13.6 Postassembly Activities 13.7 Summary References Further Reading Recommended Videos 14 Launch Vehicle Systems and Launch Pad Facilities Internal Systems of Launch Vehicle 14.1 Saturn V S-IC Fuel Systems 14.1.1 Types of Valves 14.1.2 Saturn S-IC Fuel Feed and Control 14.1.3 Saturn S-IC Fuel Conditioning (Bubbling) System 14.1.4 Saturn S-IC Fuel Level Sensing 14.2 Launch Vehicle Pressurization 14.2.1 Saturn S-IC Fuel Pressurization 14.2.2 Saturn V S-IC LOx Pressurization 14.3 Saturn V S-IC Oxidizer Systems 14.3.1 Saturn V S-IC LOx Delivery System 14.3.2 Saturn V S-IC LOx Conditioning 14.4 Saturn V Mechanical Services 14.4.1 Saturn V S-IC Pressurized Gas Control System 14.4.2 Saturn V S-IC Fluid Power System 14.4.3 Saturn V S-IC Environmental Control System 14.5 Staging and Separation Systems 14.5.1 Pyrotechnic (Explosive) Devices 14.5.2 Saturn V Staging and Separation Systems 14.5.3 Saturn V S-IC Retrorockets and S-II Step Ullage 14.5.4 Payload Fairing (Shroud) Separation 14.5.5 Alternatives to Explosive Separation Systems 14.5.6 Non-Pyrotechnic Fairing Separation 14.5.7 Payload Fairing Separation Dynamics 14.5.8 More Separation Mechanisms Explosive Bolts Explosive Nuts 14.5.9 Clamp Bands 14.6 Launch Vehicle Avionics 14.6.1 Data System 14.6.2 RF and Communications System 14.6.3 Guidance, Navigation, and Control 14.6.4 Range Safety System /Flight Termination System 14.6.5 Electrical Power System 14.6.5.1 S-IC Electrical System 14.6.5.2 S-IC Visual Instrumentation 14.6.6 Instrumentation and Telemetry 14.6.6.1 Operation of Telemetry Systems 14.6.6.2 The Telemetry Process: Getting Information to the Ground 14.6.6.3 Multiplexing of Data: Commutation 14.6.6.4 Decommutation of Telemetered Data 14.6.6.5 Data Errors Introduced by Aliasing 14.6.6.6 Quantization Error 14.6.6.7 Effective TM System Operations 14.7 Launch Pad Facilities and Ground Accommodations 14.7.1 Vehicle Access 14.7.2 Logistics at Base of Saturn V 14.7.2.1 Tail Service Connections 14.7.2.2 Swing Arm Umbilicals 14.7.2.3 More on Umbilicals 14.7.2.4 Pad Support Subsystems 14.7.2.5 Propellant Loading Operations 14.7.2.6 Lightning Protection 14.8 Launch and Liftoff Considerations 14.8.1 Staggered Engine Ignition Reduces Loads 14.8.2 Vehicle Hold-Downs and Release Mechanisms 14.8.2.1 Saturn V Hold-Down and Release Mechanism 14.8.2.2 How Was the Space Shuttle Held Down? 14.8.3 Liftoff Mechanical Loads 14.8.4 Taking Care of Loose Propellants 14.8.5 Water at Launch to Reduce Overpressure 14.8.6 Exhaust and Flame Bucket 14.8.6.1 Unintended Suborbital Flight 14.8.7 Liftoff Service Tower Clearance 14.8.8 Tracking and Radar 14.9 Vehicle Recovery and Reuse 14.9.1 Recovery Considerations 14.9.2 Payload Fairing Recovery 14.9.3 First Step Recovery 14.9.4 Upper Step Recovery 14.9.5 Summary of Recovery Options 14.10 Summary References Further Reading 15 Testing, Reliability, and Redundancy 15.1 Testing 15.1.1 Levels of Testing 15.1.2 Classical Approach to Testing 15.1.3 Protoflight Testing Approach 15.1.4 Testing vs Failure Mechanisms 15.1.5 Types of Testing 15.1.6 Typical Test Sequence 15.1.7 Component Testing 15.1.8 Wind Tunnel Testing for Ground Wind Response 15.1.9 Wind Tunnel Testing for Flight 15.1.10 Mass Properties 15.1.11 Structural Testing 15.1.12 Modal / Vibration Testing 15.1.13 Shock Testing 15.1.14 Slosh Testing 15.1.15 Radio Frequen cy Testing 15.1.16 Acoustic Testing 15.1.16.1 Acoustic Pressure Test Levels 15.1.16.2 Acoustic Test Criteria 15.1.16.3 Example Acoustic Test 15.1.17 Software Is Becoming More and More Important 15.1.17.1 Software Complexity 15.1.17.2 Software Testing 15.1.17.3 Software Reviews Pay Off 15.1.18 External Acoustic Testing 15.1.19 Hot Gas and Exhaust Plume Testing 15.1.20 Acoustic Suppression Testing 15.1.21 Full-Scale Engine Testing 15.1.22 Result of Successful Testing Sequence 15.1.23 After Hardware Delivery 15.1.24 Hot-Fire Test 15.1.25 Flight Test 15.1.26 Summary of Testing Practices for LVs 15.2 Redundancy 15.2.1 Various Types of Redundancy 15.2.2 Redundancy: Fluids and Hydraulics 15.2.3 Redundancy: Electronics 15.2.4 Reliability 15.2.5 Redundancy Example: Heater Strip 15.2.6 Reliability for k-Out-of-n Systems 15.2.6.1 Example 1: 3-of-5 Engine Rocket Reliability 15.2.6.2 Example 2: 7-of-9 Engine Rocket Reliability 15.2.6.3 Actual Engine Reliability 15.2.6.4 Payload Fairing Separation System Reliability 15.3 Summary References Recommended Reading 15.4 Exercise 16 Failures, Lessons Learned, Flight Termination Systems, and Aborts 16.1 Causes of Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV) Failures 16.1.1 Summary of Launch Failure Findings: Trends 16.2 Failure Rates of Launch Vehicles 16.2.1 Design Implications of Multiple Engines 16.3 Some Examples of Launch Vehicle Failures 16.3.1 The Challenger Incident: A Propulsion System Failure 16.3.2 Common Mistakes to Look For The Five Questions 16.3.2.1 Question 1: Could the Sign Be Wrong? Titan IV B32 /Centaur (M ILSTA R II-1) Failure 16.3.2.2 Question 2: How Will Last-Minute Configuration Changes Be Veri fied? What Is Configuration Management? Titan IVB/IUS Failure, April 1999 16.3.2.3 Question 3: Can the Vehicle Survive a Computer Crash? Computer Crash Example 1: Ariane 5 First Flight Failure Delta III: Missing? What Happened? 16.3.2.4 Question 4: Is the Circuit Overcurrent Protection Adequate? 16.3.2.5 Question 5: Can Pyros Cause Unexpected Damage? 16.3.3 The Newest Failure Category: Incorrect Mass Properties 16.4 Additional Ways to Learn from Others’ Mistakes 16.4.1 Researching History 16.4.2 Reluctance to Share Failure Information 16.5 Range Safety and Flight Termination Systems 16.5.1 Why We Have Flight Termination Systems 16.5.2 Typical Flight Termination System Make-Up 16.5.3 Method of Termination 16.5.4 Range Safety Network Using GPS 16.5.5 FTS System Details 16.5.6 Abort Modes 16.5.7 Ascent Shaping for Abort of Crewed Launch Vehicles 16.5.8 Ascent Shaping for Atlas-Centaur and Starliner Capsule 16.6 Best Practices to Avoid Failure 16.7 Summary References Recommended Reading 17 Launch Vehicle Financial Analysis and Project Management 17.1 Stages of Mission Development 17.2 The Design Cycle 17.3 Design Decision Making 17.4 Cost Engineering 17.4.1 Cost-Estimating Relationships 17.4.2 Cost-Estimating Software 17.5 Cost Considerations 17.5.1 Examples of Launch Vehicle Costs 17.5.2 Inflation Factors 17.5.3 Recommendations for Initial Cost Estimation 17.6 Cost Modeling Examples 17.6.1 Atlas V 401 Cost Breakdown 17.6.2 TRANSCOST Cost-Estimating Relationships 17.6.3 TRANSCOST Cost Shares and CER Verification 17.6.4 Specific Transportation Cost 17.6.5 Software Cost 17.6.6 Propulsion Cost 17.7 Reusability Effects on Costs 17.8 The Effects of New Technology on Cost 17.9 Concluding Remarks References 17.10 Exercises: LV Cost Estimation Problem 4: LV Cost Estimation GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Subscripts / Numbers Greek Symbols Other Symbols Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Supporting Materials ABOUT THE BOOK ABOUT THE AUTHORS