Corpus linguistics. A guide to the methodology

Description

Contents Preface Acknowledgments 1 The need for corpus data 1.1 Arguments against corpus data 1.1.1 Corpus data as usage data 1.1.2 The incompleteness of corpora 1.1.3 The absence of meaning in corpora 1.2 Intuition 1.2.1 Intuition as performance 1.2.2 The incompleteness of intuition 1.2.3 Intuitions about form and meaning 1.3 Intuition data vs. corpus data 1.4 Corpus data in other sub-disciplines of linguistics 2 What is corpus linguistics? 2.1 The linguistic corpus 2.1.1 Authenticity 2.1.2 Representativeness 2.1.3 Size 2.1.4 Annotations 2.2 Towards a definition of corpus linguistics 2.3 Corpus linguistics as a scientific method 3 Corpus linguistics as a scientific method 3.1 The scientific hypothesis 3.1.1 Stating hypotheses 3.1.2 Testing hypotheses: From counterexamples to probabilities 3.2 Operationalization 3.2.1 Operational definitions 3.2.2 Examples of operationalization in corpus linguistics 3.2.2.1 Parts of speech 3.2.2.2 Length 3.2.2.3 Discourse status 3.2.2.4 Word senses 3.2.2.5 Animacy 3.2.2.6 Interim summary 3.3 Hypotheses in context: The research cycle 4 Data retrieval and annotation 4.1 Retrieval 4.1.1 Corpus queries 4.1.2 Precision and recall 4.1.3 Manual, semi-manual and automatic searches 4.2 Annotating 4.2.1 Annotating as interpretation 4.2.2 Annotation schemes 4.2.3 The reliability of annotation schemes 4.2.4 Reproducibility 4.2.5 Data storage 5 Quantifying research questions 5.1 Types of data 5.1.1 Nominal data 5.1.2 Ordinal data 5.1.3 Cardinal data 5.1.4 Interim summary 5.2 Descriptive statistics for nominal data 5.2.1 Percentages 5.2.2 Observed and expected frequencies 5.3 Descriptive statistics for ordinal data 5.3.1 Medians 5.3.2 Frequency lists and mode 5.4 Descriptive statistics for cardinal data 5.4.1 Means 5.5 Summary 6 Significance testing 6.1 Statistical hypothesis testing 6.2 Probabilities and significance testing 6.3 Nominal data: The chi-square test 6.3.1 Two-by-two designs 6.3.2 One-by-n designs 6.4 Ordinal data: The Mann-Whitney U-test 6.5 Inferential statistics for cardinal data 6.5.1 Welch's t-test 6.5.2 Normal distribution requirement 6.6 Complex research designs 6.6.1 Variables with more than two values 6.6.2 Designs with more than two variables 6.6.2.1 A danger of bivariate designs 6.6.2.2 Configural frequency analysis 7 Collocation 7.1 Collocates 7.1.1 Collocation as a quantitative phenomenon 7.1.2 Methodological issues in collocation research 7.1.3 Effect sizes for collocations 7.1.3.1 Chi-square 7.1.3.2 Mutual Information 7.1.3.3 The log-likelihood ratio test 7.1.3.4 Minimum Sensitivity 7.1.3.5 Fisher's exact test 7.1.3.6 A comparison of association measures 7.2 Case studies 7.2.1 Collocation for its own sake 7.2.1.1 Case study: Degree adverbs 7.2.2 Lexical relations 7.2.2.1 Case study: Near synonyms 7.2.2.2 Case study: Antonymy 7.2.3 Semantic prosody 7.2.3.1 Case study: True feelings 7.2.3.2 Case study: The verb cause 7.2.4 Cultural analysis 7.2.4.1 Case study: Small boys, little girls 8 Grammar 8.1 Grammar in corpora 8.2 Case studies 8.2.1 Collocational frameworks and grammar patterns 8.2.1.1 Case study: [a __ of] 8.2.1.2 Case study: [there Vlink something ADJ about NP] 8.2.2 Collostructional analysis 8.2.2.1 Case study: The ditransitive 8.2.2.2 Case study: Ditransitive and prepositional dative 8.2.2.3 Case study: Negative evidence 8.2.3 Words and their grammatical properties 8.2.3.1 Case study: Complementation of begin and start 8.2.4 Grammar and context 8.2.4.1 Case study: Adjective order and frequency 8.2.4.2 Case study: Binomials and sonority 8.2.4.3 Case study: Horror aequi 8.2.4.4 Case study: Synthetic and analytic comparatives and persistence 8.2.5 Variation and change 8.2.5.1 Case study: Sex differences in the use of tag questions 8.2.5.2 Case study: Language change 8.2.5.3 Case study: Grammaticalization 8.2.6 Grammar and cultural analysis 8.2.6.1 Case study: He said, she said 8.2.7 Grammar and counterexamples 8.2.7.1 Case study: To- vs. that-complements 9 Morphology 9.1 Quantifying morphological phenomena 9.1.1 Counting morphemes: Types, tokens and hapax legomena 9.1.1.1 Token frequency 9.1.1.2 Type frequency 9.1.1.3 Hapax legomena 9.1.2 Statistical evaluation 9.2 Case studies 9.2.1 Morphemes and stems 9.2.1.1 Case study: Phonological constraints on -ify 9.2.1.2 Case study: Semantic differences between -ic and -ical 9.2.1.3 Case study: Phonological differences between -ic and -ical 9.2.1.4 Case study: Affix combinations 9.2.2 Morphemes and demographic variables 9.2.2.1 Case study: Productivity and genre 9.2.2.2 Case study: Productivity and speaker sex 10 Text 10.1 Keyword analysis 10.2 Case studies 10.2.1 Language variety 10.2.1.1 Case study: Keywords in scientific writing 10.2.1.2 Case study: [a + __ + of] in Scientific English 10.2.2 Comparing speech communities 10.2.2.1 Case study: British vs. American culture 10.2.2.2 Case study: ``African'' keywords 10.2.3 Co-occurrence of lexical items and demographic categories 10.2.3.1 Case study: A deductive approach to sex differences 10.2.3.2 Case study: An inductive approach to sex differences 10.2.4 Ideology 10.2.4.1 Case study: Political ideologies 10.2.4.2 Case study: The importance of men and women 10.2.5 Time periods 10.2.5.1 Case study: Verbs in the going-to future 10.2.5.2 Case study: Culture across time 11 Metaphor 11.1 Studying metaphor in corpora 11.2 Case studies 11.2.1 Source domains 11.2.1.1 Case study: Lexical relations and metaphorical mapping 11.2.1.2 Case study: Word forms in metaphorical mappings 11.2.1.3 Case study: The impact of metaphorical expressions 11.2.2 Target domains 11.2.2.1 Case study: Happiness across cultures 11.2.2.2 Case study: Intensity of emotions 11.2.3 Metaphor and text 11.2.3.1 Case study: Identifying potential source domains 11.2.3.2 Case study: Metaphoricity signals 11.2.3.3 Case study: Metaphor and ideology 11.2.4 Metonymy 11.2.4.1 Case study: Subjects of the verb bomb 12 Epilogue 13 Study notes 14 Statistical tables 14.1 Critical values for the chi-square test 14.2 Chi-square table for multiple tests with one degree of freedom 14.3 Critical values for the Mann-Whitney-Text 14.4 Critical values for Welch's t-Test References Index Name index Subject index