Tribology and Sustainability

Description

Tribology and Sustainability brings a vision of promoting a greener, cleaner and eco-friendly environment by highlighting sustainable solutions in tribology via the development of self-lubricating materials, green additives in lubricants, natural fibre-reinforced materials and biomimetic approaches. Backed by supporting schematic diagrams, data tables and illustrations for easy understanding, the book focuses on recent advancements in tribology and sustainability. Global sustainability and regional requirements are addressed through chapters on natural composites, green lubricants, biomedical systems and wind energy systems, with a dedicated chapter on a global sustainability scenario. FEATURES Highlights sustainability via new tribological approaches and how such methods are essential Covers the theoretical aspects of various tribological topics concerning mechanical and material designs for energy-efficient systems Includes practical global sustainability based on the regional requirements of tribological research and sustainable impact Reviews the tribology of green lubricants, green additives and lightweight materials Discusses topics related to biomimetics and biotribology Tribology and Sustainability will assist researchers, professionals and graduate students in tribology, surface engineering, mechanical design and materials engineering, including mechanical, aerospace, chemical and environmental engineering. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface Editors Contributors Section I: Materials Tribology Chapter 1 Materials for Tribological Applications: An Overview 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Lubrication 1.1.1.1 Types of Lubricants 1.1.2 Liquid Lubrication 1.1.2.1 Properties of Liquid Lubricants 1.1.2.2 Classification of Liquid Lubricants 1.1.2.3 Lubrication Regimes 1.1.3 Solid Lubrication 1.2 Sustainable Materials 1.2.1 Aluminium-Based Materials 1.2.1.1 Aluminium Alloys 1.2.1.2 Aluminium Composites 1.2.2 Iron-Based Materials 1.2.3 Copper-Based Materials 1.2.4 Magnesium-Based Materials 1.3 Conclusions References Chapter 2 Tribology of Lightweight Materials 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Timeline of Tribology – Lightweight Materials 2.3 Standard Wear Testing Methods and Measuring Methods 2.3.1 Standard Sliding Wear Test Methods 2.3.2 Standard Wear Measuring Methods 2.4 Factors Influencing the Tribology of Lightweight Materials 2.5 Tribology of Magnesium Alloys and Composites 2.6 Tribology of Aluminium Alloys and Composites 2.7 Dominant Wear Mechanisms Exhibited by Lightweight Materials 2.8 Summary References Chapter 3 Self-Lubricating Iron-Based Metal Matrix Composites 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Development of Iron- Based Alloy Systems 3.2.1 Hexagonal Boron Nitride (h-BN) as a Solid Lubricant in Iron Base Alloy 3.2.2 Powder Metallurgy 3.3 Tribological Behaviour of Iron-Based SLMMCs Containing Graphite 3.3.1 Microstructure Examination 3.3.2 Friction and Wear 3.3.2.1 Coefficient of Friction (COF) 3.3.2.2 Wear Behaviour 3.4 Applications, Challenges and Future Directions Acknowledgements References Chapter 4 Metal Matrix Nanocomposites: Physical, Mechanical and Tribological Properties 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Nanocomposites 4.2.1 Liquid-State Processes 4.2.2 Solid-State Processes 4.2.3 Semisolid-State Processes and Hybrid Methods 4.3 Physical and Mechanical Properties 4.4 Friction and Wear Properties 4.5 Applications and Challenges 4.6 Conclusions References Chapter 5 Tribological Properties of Green Hybrid Metal Matrix Composites Reinforced with Synthetic and Industrial–Agricultural Wastes 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Processing Routes for the Production of MMCs 5.2 Tribological Properties of Natural and Synthetic Reinforced Hybrid MMCs 5.3 Conclusion References Chapter 6 Mechanical and Tribological Properties of Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Experimental Methods 6.2.1 Fibre Preparation 6.2.2 Composite Moulding 6.2.3 Water Absorption Test 6.2.4 Mechanical and Tribological Tests 6.3 Results and Discussion 6.3.1 Water Absorption 6.3.2 Tensile Strength 6.3.3 Wear and Friction 6.4 Conclusions References Chapter 7 Solid Lubricant Coatings: Effective Lubricating Coatings for Tribological Applications 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Self-Lubricating Coatings 7.2.1 Transition Metal Dichalcogenide Lubricant Coatings 7.2.2 Adaptive Tribological Coatings 7.2.3 Hybridized Tribological Coatings 7.3 Conclusion References Chapter 8 Frictional Behaviour of Gelatin Based Soft Lubricants 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Experimental Methods 8.3 Results and Discussion 8.4 Development of Scaling Laws for Adhesive Stress and Coefficient of Friction 8.5 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Section II: Sustainable Lubrication Chapter 9 Recent Progress in Vegetable Oil-Based Lubricants for Tribological Applications 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Function of Lubricants 9.1.2 Classification of Lubricants 9.1.3 Current Status and Lubricant Market 9.2 Basic Chemistry of Hydrocarbon 9.3 Basics of Vegetable Oil 9.3.1 Benefits and Drawbacks of Vegetable Oils over Mineral Oils 9.4 Processing of Vegetable Oils 9.5 Oxidation Stability 9.6 Role of Nanoadditives 9.7 Application of Vegetable Oil-Based Lubricants 9.8 Evaluation of Lubricants 9.8.1 Evaluation of Physicochemical Properties 9.8.2 Evaluation of Tribological Performance 9.8.3 Tribological Performance of Vegetable Oil-Based Lubricants 9.9 Summary References Chapter 10 Biolubricants 10.1 Principles of Lubrication 10.2 Preparation of Biolubricants 10.3 Preparation of Biolubricants with Conventional Catalyst 10.4 Preparation of Biolubricants with Biocatalysts 10.5 Preparation of Biolubricants through Chemical Modification 10.5.1 Epoxidation 10.5.2 Estolides Formation 10.5.3 Transesterification/Esterification 10.6 Characterization of Biolubricants 10.7 Tribological Performance of Biolubricants 10.8 Tribological Performance of Biolubricants with Additives 10.9 Conclusions References Chapter 11 Group IV Base Stock: Polyalphaolefin – A High- Performance Base Oil for Tribological Applications 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Liquid Lubricants 11.2.1 Synthetic Lubricants 11.2.2 Why Do We Use Synthetic Lubricants? 11.2.3 Overview of Synthetic Base Oils 11.3 Polyalphaolefin (PAO) 11.3.1 Synthesis Process of PAO 11.3.2 Physical Properties of PAO 11.3.3 Comparison of PAOs with Petroleum-Based Mineral Oils 11.3.3.1 Advantages of PAO Oils 11.3.3.2 Disadvantages of PAO Oils 11.3.4 Recent Developments 11.3.5 Applications of PAOs 11.4 Lubricant Additives 11.4.1 Role of Nanoparticles as Additives 11.5 Tribological Performance of PAO-Based Nanolubricants 11.6 Conclusions References Chapter 12 Role of Surfactants and Their Concentrations on the Tribological Characteristics of MWCNT-in-Oil Lubricants for Hybrid AMMC–Steel Sliding Contact 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Materials and Methodology 12.2.1 Selection of Raw Materials, Additives and Their Processing 12.2.1.1 Selection of Matrix, Reinforcements and Fabrication Technique for Composite 12.2.1.2 Selection of Oil Additive and Surfactant 12.2.2 Friction–Wear Tests 12.2.3 Characterizations 12.2.3.1 Characterization of Lubricant (Oil-Particle-Surfactant) 12.2.3.2 Microstructural, Morphological and Chemical Characterization of Wear Tracks 12.2.4 Statistical Analysis: Taguchi-ANOVA 12.3 Results and Discussion 12.3.1 Tribological Characteristics, Rheological and Electrical Properties 12.3.2 Prophecy of Lubrication Regime 12.3.3 Role of the Operating Parameters on the Triboperformance of SF MWCNT in Oil under the AMMC–Steel Contact: A Statistical Analysis Using the Taguchi-ANOVA and Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) Modelling Approach 12.3.3.1 Trend Analysis of Dominating Factors and Estimation of the Optimal Operating Condition for the Response Variables (COF and WR) 12.3.3.2 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for the SF MWCNT-in-Oil Tribological Tests 12.3.3.3 Development of a Relationship between the Response Variable and the Operating Parameters: Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) Modelling 12.3.3.4 Mapping of Lubrication Regime 12.3.4 A Final Look into the Underlying Friction–Wear–Lubrication Mechanism Prevailed under the SF MWCNT-in-Oil Lubrication 12.4 Conclusions References Chapter 13 A Nexus of Tribology and Rheology to Study Thin-Film Mechanics of Asphalt–Aggregate Interaction during Mixing and Compaction 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Asphalt Mixing and Compaction 13.2.1 Mixing and Compaction Process 13.2.2 Determination of Mixing and Compaction Temperatures 13.2.3 WMA Additives and the Need for Tribology 13.3 Fundamentals of Tribology 13.3.1 Background 13.3.2 Tribology vis-à-vis Asphalt Mixture 13.3.3 Tribology vis-à-vis Asphalt Binder 13.4 Tests for Asphalt Binders 13.4.1 Tests Based on Rheology 13.4.2 Tests Based on Tribology 13.4.2.1 Ball-on-Three-Plate Configuration 13.4.2.2 Four-Ball Configuration 13.4.2.3 Pin-on-Flat Geometry Configuration 13.4.2.4 Summary of Testing Conditions 13.5 Results and Discussion 13.6 Critical Gaps and Future Work 13.7 Conclusion References Chapter 14 Effect of Fatty Acid Composition on the Lubricating Properties of Bio-Based Green Lubricants 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Effect of Fatty Acids on the Tribological Properties of Bio-Oils 14.3 Effect of Fatty Acids on the Rheological Properties of Bio-Oils 14.4 Effect of Fatty Acids on the Thermal Properties of Bio-Oils 14.4.1 High-Temperature Properties 14.4.2 Low-Temperature Properties 14.5 Effect of Fatty Acids on the Oxidative Properties of Bio-Oils 14.6 Future Scope References Chapter 15 Multi-Lobe Journal Bearings Analysis with Limited Texture 15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 Multi-Lobe Journal Bearings 15.1.2 Limited (Partial) Texture Bearings 15.1.3 Limited (Partial) Texture Multi-Lobe Journal Bearings 15.2 Methodology 15.2.1 Dynamic Reynolds (Modified) Model 15.2.2 Steady-State Analysis 15.2.3 Dynamic Analysis 15.3 Results and Discussion 15.3.1 Two-Axial-Groove Bearing 15.3.2 Two-Lobe Journal Bearing 15.3.3 Three-Lobe Journal Bearing 15.3.4 Offset Journal Bearing 15.5 Conclusions References Chapter 16 Minimum Quantity Lubrication for Sustainable Manufacturing 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Basics of Tool-Chip Tribology 16.3 Methods of Cutting Fluid 16.3.1 Wet Cooling Technique 16.3.2 High Pressure Cooling 16.3.3 Cryogenic Machining 16.3.4 Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) 16.3.4.1 Types of MQL Systems 16.4 MQL Using Different Cutting Fluids in Conventional Machining 16.4.1 MQL in Drilling 16.4.2 MQL in Turning 16.4.3 MQL in Grinding 16.4.4 MQL in Milling 16.5 Challenges in Using MQL for Conventional Machining 16.6 Conclusion and Future Scope References Section III: Biotribology Chapter 17 Biomedical Tribology 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Biomedical Materials 17.2.1 Application and Uses of Biomedical Materials 17.2.2 Material Properties of Biomedical Materials 17.2.3 Materials Used in Biomedical Devices 17.2.4 Biomineralization of Metallic Biomaterials 17.3 Tribology of Biomedical Materials 17.3.1 History of Tribology in Biomedical Materials 17.3.2 Tribological Considerations of Total Hip Arthroplasty 17.3.3 Tribology of Materials in Total Hip Arthroplasty 17.3.3.1 Metal on Metal 17.3.3.2 Ceramic on Ceramic 17.3.3.3 Metal on Polymer 17.4 Tribocorrosion and Biotribocorrosion 17.4.1 Tribocorrosion 17.4.2 Corrosion 17.4.3 Wear 17.4.3.1 Classification of Wear Mechanisms 17.4.4 Tribocorrosion 17.4.4.1 Classification of Tribocorrosion 17.4.4.2 Factors affecting Tribocorrosion 17.5 Summary 17.6 The Future of Biomedical Devices 17.7 Conclusions References Chapter 18 Tribological Studies on Titanium Alloys for Biomedical Applications 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Titanium Alloys in Biomedical Field 18.3 Tribological Studies on Biomedical Titanium Alloys 18.4 Surface Modification Methods to Improve Tribological Behaviour of Biomedical Ti Alloys 18.4.1 Use of PVD Coatings and Laser Surface Alloying 18.4.2 Laser Surface Texturing 18.4.3 Plasma Nitriding 18.4.4 Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO) 18.4.5 Thermal Oxidation (TO) 18.4.6 Miscellaneous Methods 18.5 Lubrication Aspects 18.6 Conclusions References Chapter 19 Tribological Aspects of Artificial Joints 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Tribology of Artificial Joints 19.2.1 Friction 19.2.2 Wear Mechanisms 19.2.3 Lubrication 19.3 Failure Criteria 19.3.1 Mechanical Damage 19.3.2 Cracks 19.3.3 Scratches 19.3.4 Plastic Flow 19.3.5 Adhesion Wear 19.3.6 Flaking 19.3.7 Embedded Wear Particles 19.4 The Role of Surface and Counterface Defects 19.5 Generation and Analysis of Wear Debris 19.6 Conclusion References Chapter 20 Biomedical Tribology: Wear of Polyethylene in Total Joint Replacement 20.1 Introduction 20.1.1 Total Knee Replacement (TKR) 20.1.2 Total Hip Replacement (THR) 20.1.3 Implant Failures 20.2 UHMWPE as Bearing Components in TJR 20.3 Wear of UHMWPE 20.3.1 Wear Mechanism 20.3.1.1 Abrasive Wear 20.3.1.2 Adhesive Wear 20.3.1.3 Fatigue Wear 20.3.2 Wear Process 20.3.3 Wear Features 20.4 Factors Influencing Wear of Polyethylene 20.4.1 Design of Implant 20.4.1.1 Bearing Geometries 20.4.1.2 Surface Topography 20.4.1.3 Contact Stress 20.4.1.4 Lubrication Condition 20.4.2 Materials 20.4.3 Processing Method 20.4.3.1 Cross-Linking 20.4.3.2 Sterilization Method 20.4.3.3 Shelf Storage 20.4.4 Surgical Technique 20.4.5 Patient Factor 20.5 Development of Polyethylene to Improve Wear Resistance 20.5.1 Modified UHMWPE for TJR 20.5.1.1 Hylamer 20.5.1.2 Highly Cross-Linked UHMWPE 20.5.1.3 Vitamin E with UHMWPE 20.5.1.4 UHMWPE Composites 20.5.2 Manufacturing Technique 20.5.3 Sterilization Method 20.5.4 Surface Modification 20.6 Conclusions Acknowledgements References Chapter 21 Tribological Review of Medical Implants Manufactured by Additive Manufacturing 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Need for Additive Manufacturing 21.3 Major Steps Followed by Additive Manufacturing 21.4 History and Background of Tribology 21.5 Tribological System 21.6 Components and Dynamics of a Tribosystem 21.6.1 Friction 21.6.2 Wear 21.6.3 Tribocorrosion and Tribochemical Reaction 21.6.4 Lubrication 21.6.5 Analysis of Wear 21.7 Materials Commonly Used for Medical Implants 21.8 Biotribology of Total Hip Arthroplasty 21.9 Biotribology of Total Knee Arthroplasty 21.10 Limitations and Future Scope 21.11 Conclusion References Chapter 22 Aqueous Lubrication 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Oil-in-Water Emulsions 22.3 Water as Lubricant 22.4 Nanoparticles 22.5 Experiment 22.5.1 Materials 22.5.2 Steel Sample Preparation 22.5.3 Emulsion Preparation 22.5.4 Particle Size and Zeta Potential Measurement 22.5.5 Nanohardness 22.6 Results 22.6.1 Dry Contact 22.6.2 Only Water as Lubricant 22.6.3 Oil as Lubricant 22.6.4 Aqueous Suspension of MoS[sup(2)] (Particle Conc.: 1 mg/ml, SDS Conc.: 1 mM) 22.6.5 Aqueous Suspension of Nanoclay (Particle Conc.: 1 mg/ml, SDS Conc.: 1 mM) 22.6.6 Aqueous Suspension of Kaoline (Particle Conc.: 1 mg/ml, SDS Conc.: 1 mM) 22.6.7 Aqueous Suspension of SDS (SDS Conc.: 1 mM)g 22.6.8 Comparison of Different Lubricants 22.7 Conclusions Acknowledgement References Index