Cryogenics: Fundamentals, Foundations and Applications

Description

Cryogenics—the science that addresses the production, effects and maintenance of very low temperatures—underpins a range of enabling technologies that impact our daily lives in ways that are not immediately apparent. This book provides a practical, hands-on reference source to promote exploitation and innovation in all areas of cryogenic science and technology. The book is particularly designed to aid those practitioners coming newly into cryogenics, giving them a context and signposts for where to go for further information. It spans a broad range of applications and undoubtedly will contain new information useful to those already involved with cryogenics. Key features • This is devoted to the contemporary uses of cryogenics, informing over a wide area including the technology, key applications and economic impacts. • The book is written by experts in the field, providing a best-practice handbook for scientific and industrial users of cryogenic technologies. The book gives readers practical tools/approaches that they can use in their own research or industry setting. • The book contains extensive references that will aid further research and study. • Provides a broader view, encompassing a range of established and emerging industrial/commercial applications. • Links with the British Cryogenics Council's 'Fundamentals of Cryogenics' training course to support scientists, technicians and engineers within its academic and industrial membership organizations. PRELIMS.pdf Acknowledgement Editor biographies Tom Bradshaw Beth Evans John Vandore Biographies of contributors List of contributors CH001.pdf Chapter 1 Fundamentals of cryogenics 1.1 Introduction 1.2 What do we mean by cryogenics? 1.3 Role of cryogenics in the economy 1.4 Target audience and how they will make use of this book 1.5 Physical effects of cryogenics 1.6 Role of cryogenics in medical applications 1.7 Role of cryogenics in science 1.8 Role of cryogenics in energy and the environment 1.9 Brief resumé of the chapters CH002.pdf Chapter 2 What is cryogenics?—UK perspective and brief history 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Brief history of cryogenics 2.3 History of cryogenics in the UK 2.4 Cryogenics industry in the UK 2.5 Growth of the cryogenic industry in the UK 2.6 Cryogenics in the UK economy 2.7 The British Cryogenics Council References CH003.pdf Chapter 3 Cryostat design 3.1 Fundamentals of cryostat design 3.1.1 Introduction 3.1.2 Cooling methods 3.1.3 Heat gains 3.1.4 Types of cryostats 3.1.5 Cryostat construction 3.1.6 Sealing and leak detection 3.2 Thermal balance and insulation techniques 3.2.1 Introduction 3.2.2 Heat flows 3.2.3 Thermal modelling 3.2.4 Managing uncertainty 3.3 Insulation and isolation 3.3.1 Introduction 3.3.2 Multi-layer insulation (MLI) 3.4 Material properties 3.4.1 Introduction 3.4.2 Thermal conductive properties 3.5 Heat exchangers 3.5.1 Introduction 3.5.2 Summary and use in JT cryocoolers 3.6 Introduction to temperature scales 3.6.1 Introduction 3.6.2 Description of the current scales in use: the ITS-90 and the PLTS-2000 3.6.3 Scale realisation uncertainties 3.6.4 The kelvin redefinition, the mise-en-pratique for the definition of the kelvin and the future of temperature measurement 3.7 Practical thermometry 3.7.1 Introduction 3.7.2 Thermometer calibration 3.7.3 Thermal and electrical stabilisation of temperature measurements 3.7.4 Types of thermometers 3.8 Cryogenic instrumentation 3.8.1 Introduction 3.8.2 Flow 3.8.3 Pressure 3.8.4 Strain 3.8.5 Magnetic field 3.8.6 Light sensors 3.8.7 Motion sensors 3.8.8 Liquid level measurement References CH004.pdf Chapter 4 Closed cycle refrigerators 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The imperative for CCRs 4.2.1 Stirling engine 4.3 Gifford McMahon cryocoolers 4.3.1 Use with superconducting magnets 4.4 Pulse tube refrigerators 4.5 Thermoacoustic refrigerators 4.6 Joule–Thomson refrigerators 4.7 Vapour compression refrigerators 4.7.1 Standard vapour compression refrigerator 4.7.2 Cascade refrigerators 4.7.3 Refrigerants 4.7.4 Refrigerator design 4.8 Turbo Brayton refrigerators 4.9 Thermoelectric coolers 4.10 The Carnot cycle 4.11 Summary References CH005.pdf Chapter 5 Very low temperature techniques 5.1 Dilution refrigerators 5.1.1 Introduction 5.1.2 Theoretical description 5.1.3 Practical description 5.1.4 Gas handling 5.1.5 Low temperature environment and mixture condensation 5.1.6 Heat exchangers 5.1.7 Mixing chamber 5.1.8 Thermometry, wiring and thermal anchoring 5.1.9 Fixing incorrect fridge mixture 5.1.10 Modern applications 5.1.11 Quantum computation 5.1.12 Quantum fluids and solids 5.1.13 Cosmological phenomena 5.2 Adiabatic demagnetisation—electronic and nuclear 5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.2 Principle of operation 5.2.3 Theoretical description 5.2.4 Practical description and limitations 5.2.5 State-of-the-art 5.2.6 Modern trends 5.3 Helium evaporative sorption coolers 5.3.1 Introduction 5.3.2 Principle 5.3.3 Basic sizing 5.3.4 Sorption pumping 5.3.5 Multi-stage systems 5.3.6 Space applications 5.3.7 Space-borne evaporative helium cooler 5.3.8 Suspension system 5.3.9 Gas gap heat switches 5.3.10 Hybrid cooler 5.4 Laser cooling and low temperatures in atomic physics 5.4.1 Introduction 5.4.2 Ion trapping 5.4.3 Inductive cooling 5.4.4 Sideband cooling 5.4.5 Laser cooling 5.4.6 Sympathetic cooling 5.4.7 Neutral atom trapping References CH006.pdf Chapter 6 Cryogenics in particle accelerators and fusion reactors 6.1 Overview of requirements 6.1.1 Introduction 6.1.2 Cooling of superconducting magnets 6.1.3 Cooling of superconducting radio frequency cavities 6.1.4 Provision of dense pure fluids 6.1.5 Provision of large clean vacuum spaces 6.1.6 Sample environments 6.2 Distribution techniques 6.3 Cryogenics for superconducting RF cavities 6.3.1 Introduction 6.3.2 SRF cavity theory and operation 6.3.3 Vertical cavity testing 6.3.4 Cryomodule integration and testing References CH007.pdf Chapter 7 Propulsion, energy storage and renewables 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Electric aircraft and electric propulsion 7.2.1 Introduction 7.2.2 Electric propulsion issues 7.2.3 Electrical power systems 7.2.4 Cryogenic superconducting electric power systems 7.2.5 Superconducting propulsion systems 7.2.6 Cryogenic systems and fuel tanks 7.2.7 Summary Acknowledgements 7.3 Cryogenics in LNG and biomethane 7.3.1 The UK perspective 7.3.2 Storage and control 7.3.3 Motive power 7.4 Hydrogen—energy carrier of the future 7.5 Peter Dearman’s liquid air engine 7.6 Liquid air energy storage (LAES) and Highview Power’s ‘CRYOBattery’ 7.6.1 Introduction 7.6.2 Highview LAES system 7.6.3 Conclusions 7.7 Looking to the future—Covid-19: pathway to a lasting legacy for clean cooling 7.7.1 Introduction 7.7.2 Systems approach to cooling 7.7.3 Birmingham centre for cryogenic energy storage 7.8 Superconducting electrical machines for wind turbines 7.8.1 Wind turbine drivelines 7.8.2 Driveline developments 7.8.3 Offshore wind turbines in extreme environments 7.8.4 Superconducting generator design features 7.8.5 Superconducting bulk materials 7.8.6 Summary References CH008.pdf Chapter 8 Life science and healthcare 8.1 Cryogenics and its application to the biological sciences 8.1.1 Preserving biological materials in the laboratory 8.1.2 Other applications 8.1.3 Concluding remarks 8.2 Cryogenic techniques in biological electron microscopy 8.2.1 Electron microscopy sample preparation and the motivation for the use of cryo-fixation 8.2.2 The development of cryo-EM and the current state-of-the-art 8.2.3 The use of cryogenic techniques in correlative light and electron microscopy 8.2.4 Challenges and future perspectives 8.3 Cryosurgery 8.3.1 History of cryosurgery 8.3.2 Pre surgical device applications 8.3.3 Early surgical device applications 8.3.4 Modern day cryosurgical devices 8.3.5 Liquefied gas cryosurgical applications 8.3.6 Gas-based cryosurgical applications 8.3.7 Liquefied gas cryosurgical devices 8.3.8 Gas-based cryosurgical device 8.4 Cryotherapy 8.4.1 Cryochambers 8.4.2 Definition and categorization of the cryotherapy devices 8.4.3 The standard (Wroclaw-type) cryochamber 8.4.4 Cryosauna 8.4.5 Safety 8.5 Cryogenics in proton and heavier-ion radiotherapy 8.5.1 Rationale for proton radiotherapy 8.5.2 Early history of proton radiotherapy 8.5.3 Cryo-cooled superconducting technology in modern proton radiotherapy 8.5.4 Heavier-ion radiotherapy References CH009.pdf Chapter 9 Industrial applications 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Cryogenic condensation for solvent recovery 9.3 Superconducting magnetic separation 9.3.1 Magnetic separation, purpose and principles 9.3.2 Basic concepts in magnetic separation 9.3.3 Permanent magnets, drums 9.3.4 Electric magnets, carousels, iron-enclosed pot magnets 9.3.5 Advent of superconductive magnets 9.3.6 Major market penetration with MRI magnets 9.3.7 Application to magnetic separation 9.3.8 First appearances of magnetic separators 9.3.9 Cooling technologies for superconducting magnets, and new magnet materials 9.3.10 Economic advantages/disadvantages 9.4 Deep cryogenic treatment 9.5 Applications of cryogenics in the food industry References