Hydrology and Hydraulic Systems

Description

For more than 25 years, the multiple editions of Hydrology & Hydraulic Systems have set the standard for a comprehensive, authoritative treatment of the quantitative elements of water resources development. The latest edition extends this tradition of excellence in a thoroughly revised volume that reflects the current state of practice in the field of hydrology. Widely praised for its direct and concise presentation, practical orientation, and wealth of example problems, Hydrology & Hydraulic Systems presents fundamental theories and concepts balanced with excellent coverage of engineering applications and design. The Fourth Edition features a major revision of the chapter on distribution systems, as well as a new chapter on the application of remote sensing and computer modeling to hydrology. Outstanding features of the Fourth Edition include: More than 350 illustrations and 200 tables More than 225 fully solved examples, both in FPS and SI units Fully worked-out examples of design projects with realistic data More than 500 end-of-chapter problems for assignment Discussion of statistical procedures for groundwater monitoring in accordance with the EPA's Unified Guidance Detailed treatment of hydrologic field investigations and analytical procedures for data assessment, including the USGS acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) approach Thorough coverage of theory and design of loose-boundary channels, including the latest concept of combining the regime theory and the power function laws Title Page ......Page 2 Contents......Page 4 Preface......Page 14 1.1 Development of Water Resources......Page 16 1.2 Assessment of Demand......Page 17 1.4 Municipal Requirements......Page 18 1.5 Population Forecasting......Page 19 1.6.2 Arithmetic Growth Method......Page 20 1.6.3 Geometric Growth Method......Page 21 1.6.4 Declining Growth Rate Method......Page 22 1.7.2 Mathematical Logistic Curve Method......Page 23 1.7.3 Ratio and Correlation Methods......Page 25 1.7.4 Component Methods......Page 26 1.8 Per Capita Water Usage......Page 27 1.8.1 Average Daily per Capita Usage for Water Supply......Page 28 1.8.2 Variations in Usage......Page 29 1.9 Fire Demands......Page 30 1.9.3 Fire Flow Requirements and Duration......Page 31 1.11 Waste Dilution Requirements......Page 34 1.13.2 Modified Blaney-Criddle Method......Page 37 1.14 Effective Rainfall......Page 38 1.16 Conveyance Losses and Waste......Page 40 1.17 Computation of Irrigation Demands......Page 42 1.18.1 Power and Energy Production from Available Streamflows......Page 45 1.19 Demand for Navigation......Page 48 2.2 Hydrologic Cycle......Page 54 2.3.1 Balance Equation for Water Bodies for Short Duration......Page 55 2.3.2 Balance Equation for Large River Basins for Long Duration......Page 56 2.3.4 Water Balance Equation for Direct Runoff within a Basin for Longer than Storm Duration......Page 57 2.4 Discrepancy Term in the Water Balance Equation......Page 60 2.5 Precipitation......Page 61 2.6 Analysis of Point Precipitation Data......Page 62 2.6.2 Checking Consistency of Data: Double-Mass Analysis......Page 63 2.7 Conversion of Point Precipitation to Areal Precipitation......Page 66 2.7.3 Isohyetal Method......Page 67 2.8 Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Analysis of Point Precipitation......Page 69 2.9 Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) Analysis of a Storm......Page 73 3.2 Evaporation from Free-Water Bodies......Page 80 3.3 Evaporation Using Pans......Page 81 3.4 Evaporation by the Aerodynamic Method......Page 82 3.5 Evaporation by the Energy Balance Method......Page 85 3.6 Combination Method of Penman......Page 89 3.7 Evapotranspiration from a Drainage Basin......Page 91 3.9 Penman-Monteith Method......Page 92 3.9.1 Reference Crop Evapotranspiration by the Penman-Monteith Method......Page 93 3.9.2 Actual Evapotranspiration from Any Surface......Page 95 3.10 Blaney-Criddle Method......Page 100 4.1 Direct Runoff from Rainfall or Rain Excess......Page 108 4.2 Infiltration Capacity Curve Approach......Page 110 4.2.1 Horton Model......Page 111 4.2.2 Holton Model......Page 115 4.2.3 Approximate Infiltration Model of Green-Ampt......Page 117 4.2.4 Determination of Parameters in the Green-Ampt Model......Page 119 4.3 HEC’s Nonlinear Loss-Rate Function Approach for Direct Runoff......Page 125 4.4 The NRCS Approach for Direct Runoff......Page 126 4.5 Infiltration-Index Approach for Direct Runoff......Page 131 4.6 Direct Runoff from Snowmelt......Page 134 4.6.2 Temperature Index or Degree-Day Method......Page 135 4.6.3 Generalized Equation of the Corps of Engineers......Page 136 5.2 Classification of Subsurface Water......Page 142 5.3 Water-Bearing Formations......Page 144 5.4 Fluid Potential and Hydraulic Head......Page 146 5.5 Basic Equation of Groundwater Flow: Darcy’s Law......Page 147 5.5.1 Darcy Velocity and Seepage Velocity......Page 148 5.6.1 Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 151 5.6.2 Variation of Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 154 5.6.3 Transmissivity......Page 156 5.6.4 Leakance, Retardation Coefficient, and Leakage Factor (for Leaky Aquifer)......Page 157 5.7.1 Specific Retention (of Water-Table Aquifer)......Page 158 5.7.2 Specific Yield (of Water-Table Aquifer)......Page 161 5.7.3 Specific Storage for Confined Aquifers......Page 164 5.7.4 Storage Coefficient or Storativity......Page 165 5.8 Generalization of Darcy’s Law......Page 166 5.8.1 Velocity Potential......Page 167 5.9 Validity of Darcy’s Law......Page 169 5.11 General Equation of Groundwater Flow......Page 170 5.11.1 Equation for Confined Aquifers......Page 171 5.11.2 Equation for Unconfined Aquifers......Page 174 5.12 An Overview of the Groundwater Flow Equation......Page 175 5.13 Unsaturated Flow and Two-Phase Flow......Page 176 6.1.1 Groundwater Flow between Two Water Bodies......Page 182 6.1.2 Steady-State Confined Flow to a Well......Page 185 6.1.3 Steady-State Unconfined Flow to a Well......Page 189 6.1.4 Groundwater Travel Time......Page 192 6.2.1 Unsteady Flow to a Well: Theis Equation......Page 193 6.2.2 Aquifer-Test Analysis......Page 195 6.3.1 Theis or Type-Curve Method......Page 196 6.4 Unsteady-State Analysis of Confined Aquifers: Cooper- Jacob Method......Page 202 6.4.1 Drawdown-Time Analysis......Page 203 6.4.3 Measurements in Many Wells at Various Times for Either Drawdown-Time or Drawdown-Distance Analysis......Page 204 6.5 Unsteady-State Analysis of Unconfined Aquifers......Page 207 6.6 Semiconfined Aquifers: The Theory of Leaky Aquifers......Page 211 6.6.1 Steady-State Flow in Leaky Aquifers......Page 213 6.6.2 Unsteady-State Flow in Leaky Aquifers......Page 215 6.7.1 Well Near a Stream......Page 217 6.7.2 Well Near an Impermeable Boundary......Page 220 6.8.1 Well Losses......Page 222 6.8.2 Step-Drawdown Test: Bierschenk Solution......Page 223 6.8.4 Specific Capacity......Page 224 6.9 Well Field Design......Page 226 7.1.1 Advective Transport......Page 236 7.1.2 Diffusive Transport: Fick’s First Law of Diffusion......Page 238 7.1.3 Dispersive Transport......Page 239 7.2 Mass Transport Equations......Page 240 7.2.1 Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion......Page 241 7.3 Solutions of the Mass Transport Equation......Page 242 7.3.1 Instantaneous Release from a Plane Source in an Infinite System......Page 243 7.3.2 Instantaneous Release from a Plane Source in a Semi-Infinite System......Page 246 7.3.3 Continuous Release from a Plane Source in an Infinite System......Page 247 7.4 Fate of Contaminants......Page 250 7.5 Aqueous Phase or Soluble Contaminants......Page 251 7.5.1 Uncertainties of Dispersion Coefficients for Porous Media......Page 252 7.6 Immiscible or Nonaqueous Phase Liquids (NAPL)......Page 254 7.6.1 Two-Phase Flow through a Porous Medium......Page 255 7.6.2 Transport of NAPL......Page 257 7.7.1 Freshwater and Saltwater Interface......Page 259 7.7.2 Upconing of Saline Water......Page 260 7.8.1 Statistical Evaluation of Groundwater Monitoring Data......Page 262 7.8.2 Statistical Measures of Sample Data......Page 263 7.9 Checking Data Fitness for Statistical Procedures......Page 265 7.10.1 Probability Plot and the Shapiro-Wilk Test......Page 266 7.11 Testing for Statistical Independence......Page 269 7.12 Checking for Equality of Variances across Well Groups......Page 271 7.14 Strategies for Procedure Selection......Page 272 7.15.1 Computing Tolerance Intervals......Page 274 7.16 Prediction Interval Technique......Page 275 7.16.1 Computing Prediction Intervals......Page 276 7.17.1 The Combined Shewart-Cusum Control Chart Procedure......Page 277 7.18.1 Confidence Interval Containing Mean of Compliance Data......Page 279 7.18.2 Confidence Interval Containing 95th Percentile of Compliance Data......Page 280 7.19 Non-Parametric Intervals......Page 282 8.1 Determination of Streamflow......Page 288 8.3.1 Stilling Well with Float Sensor......Page 289 8.3.3 Radar Stage Measurement......Page 290 8.4 Discharge Measurement......Page 291 8.4.1 Methods of Discharge Measurement......Page 292 8.5.1 Procedures of Current Meter Measurement......Page 293 8.6 Velocity Distribution in a Stream Section......Page 295 8.7 Mean Vertical Velocity......Page 296 8.8 Measurement of Velocity by Current Meter......Page 297 8.9 Measurement of Depth (Sounding) for Current Meter Method......Page 302 8.11 Wet-Line Correction for Depth for Sounding Reel Line......Page 303 8.12 Computation of Discharge for Current Meter Method......Page 306 8.12.1 Midsection Method......Page 307 8.12.2 Mean-Section Method......Page 308 8.12.3 Velocity-Depth Integration Method......Page 310 8.12.4 Velocity-Contour Method......Page 313 8.13 Discharge Measurement by Hydroacoustic System......Page 314 8.13.1 Procedure for ADCP Measurements......Page 315 8.14 Basic Concepts of the ADCP......Page 316 8.15 Discharge Measurement by Ultrasonic (Acoustic) Velocity Meter (UVM)......Page 319 8.16 Discharge Measurement by the Electromagnetic Method......Page 320 8.18 Discharge Rating......Page 321 8.19.1 Logarithmic Rating Curve......Page 322 8.20.2 Arithmetic Procedure......Page 324 8.21.1 Graphic Procedure to Determine Rating Equation......Page 327 8.21.2 Linear Regression Analysis to Determine Rating Equation......Page 328 8.22 Slope-Stage-Discharge Relation......Page 331 8.24.1 Channel-Bank Survey......Page 333 8.24.2 Bathymetry Survey......Page 335 8.24.5 Stage and Cross-Sectional Area Relation......Page 337 8.25.1 Collection of Discharge Measurements......Page 338 8.26 Discharge from Stage and Index-Velocity Data......Page 340 8.28 Dissemination of Streamflow Information......Page 341 9.1 Runoff and Streamflow......Page 352 9.2 Mechanism of Runoff Generation......Page 353 9.3.3 Correlation with Hydrological Data at another Site......Page 356 9.4 Hydrological Processes in Streamflow Estimation......Page 357 9.5 Hydrograph Analysis for Estimation of Streamflow......Page 358 9.7.1 Separation by Recession Curve Approach......Page 360 9.7.2 Separation by Arbitrary Approach......Page 362 9.8.2 Unit Hydrograph......Page 365 9.8.3 Distribution Graph......Page 367 9.9.1 Derivation by the Inverse Procedure......Page 368 9.9.2 Derivation by the IUH Technique......Page 369 9.10.1 Lagging Method......Page 375 9.10.2 S-Curve Method......Page 376 9.11 Formulation of Synthetic Unit Hydrograph......Page 377 9.11.1 Snyder’s Method......Page 378 9.11.2 Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Method......Page 382 9.12 Estimation of Streamflow from Unit Hydrograph......Page 385 10.3 Precipitation-Runoff Correlation for Estimation of Streamflow......Page 394 10.3.1 Rank Analysis for Antecedent Precipitation Index (API)......Page 395 10.3.2 Correlation of Antecedent Precipitation Index and Runoff by Regression Analysis......Page 398 10.4 Correlation of Gaging-Station Records for Estimation of Streamflow......Page 401 10.4.1 Simple Correlation......Page 402 10.5 Correlation of Duration Curves for Estimation of Streamflow......Page 404 10.6 Synthetic Techniques......Page 405 10.7 Hydrologic Time Series and Stochastic Process......Page 406 10.8 Markov Process or Autoregressive (AR) Model......Page 407 10.8.1 Statistical Parameters of Historical Data......Page 408 10.8.2 Identifying the Distribution of Streamflow Data......Page 409 10.8.3 Generating Random Numbers......Page 411 10.8.4 Deterministic and Random Components......Page 412 10.8.5 Formulating the Markov Model......Page 413 10.9 Autoregressive-Moving Average (ARMA) Model......Page 414 10.10 Disaggregation Model......Page 417 10.11 Autorun Model......Page 418 10.13 Estimation Based on Drainage Area Ratio......Page 420 10.14 Estimation Based on Regression Equations......Page 423 10.15 The Hydraulic Geometry of Stream Channels......Page 424 10.16.2 Flow-Duration Curve......Page 427 11.2 The Concept of Probability in Hydrology......Page 438 11.3 Design Flood for Hydraulic Structures......Page 441 11.3.1 Risk Basis for Design Flood......Page 442 11.3.2 Economic Basis for Design Flood......Page 444 11.5 Type and Quality of Data......Page 445 11.5.2 Homogeneity of Data......Page 446 11.5.4 Adequacy of Data......Page 449 11.7 Graphical Method......Page 450 11.8 Empirical Method......Page 451 11.9.2 Lognormal Distribution......Page 453 11.9.3 Extreme Value Distribution......Page 454 11.10 Approach to Analytical Method......Page 456 11.11 Generalized Skew Coefficient......Page 457 11.12 Confidence Limits and Probability Adjustments......Page 463 11.13.1 Combined-Population (Composite) Frequency Analysis......Page 465 11.13.2 Frequency Analysis of Partial-Duration Series......Page 466 11.13.4 Regional Frequency Analysis......Page 468 11.15 Estimation of PMP......Page 469 11.16.2 Temporal Distribution......Page 473 11.16.3 Spatial Distribution......Page 474 11.17.1 Transformation of Design Storm to Flood Flow Hydrograph......Page 476 11.18 Peak Snowmelt Discharge......Page 477 11.19 Regionalized Flood Relations for Ungaged Sites......Page 478 11.20.1 Myers-Jarvis Enveloping Curves......Page 479 11.22 Computation of Low Flow......Page 481 11.24 Low-Flow Frequency Analysis by Analytical Method......Page 482 12.2 The Continuity Equation......Page 492 12.3 The Energy Equation......Page 493 12.4 The Momentum Equation......Page 495 12.5 Applications of the Hydrodynamic Principles......Page 498 12.6 Kinematic Wave Theory......Page 499 12.6.1 Methods of Solving the Kinematic Equations......Page 500 12.7 Formulation of Hydrograph by the Kinematic Theory......Page 501 12.7.1 Solution for Rising Hydrograph......Page 503 12.7.2 Time of Concentration......Page 504 12.7.3 Receding Hydrograph......Page 505 12.8 Routing Process......Page 506 12.10 Streamflow Routing by the Kinematic Theory......Page 508 12.11 Muskingum-Cunge Kinematic Routing Method......Page 509 12.13 Hydrologic Routing......Page 512 12.14 Streamflow Routing by the Hydrologic Method: Muskingum Method......Page 513 12.14.1 Determination of Routing Constants......Page 514 12.14.2 Application of the Muskingum Method......Page 516 12.15 Reservoir Routing by the Hydrologic Method: The Puls Method......Page 518 12.16 Hydraulic Transients......Page 520 13.3 Orifices and Mouthpieces......Page 528 13.3.1 Flow through a Small Orifice......Page 529 13.3.2 Flow through a Large Orifice......Page 530 13.3.3 Mouthpieces......Page 531 13.3.4 Time to Empty......Page 533 13.4.1 Flow over Sharp-Crested Weirs......Page 534 13.4.2 Rectangular Sharp-Crested Suppressed Weir......Page 535 13.4.4 Rectangular Sharp-Crested Weir with End Contractions......Page 536 13.4.5 Rectangular Sharp-Crested Weir with Velocity of Approach......Page 537 13.4.6 Triangular (V-notch) Weir......Page 538 13.4.7 Trapezoidal Weir......Page 539 13.4.8 Flow over Sharp-Crested, Submerged Weirs......Page 540 13.5 Flow over Broad-Crested Weirs......Page 542 13.5.1 Coefficient of Discharge of Broad-Crested Weirs......Page 544 13.6 Flumes......Page 547 13.7.1 Orifice Meter......Page 549 13.7.2 Nozzle Meter......Page 550 13.7.3 Venturi Meter......Page 552 13.8.1 Slope-Area Method for a Stream Channel......Page 553 13.8.2 Measurement at Width Contractions of a Bridge......Page 555 13.8.3 Measurement at Dams......Page 559 13.9 Storage Structures......Page 560 13.10 Reservoir Storage Capacity......Page 561 13.11 Storage Capacity of Water Supply Tanks......Page 563 13.13 Dams......Page 568 13.13.1 Selection of Dam Type......Page 569 13.15 Overflow Spillways......Page 570 13.15.1 Crest Shape of Overflow Spillways......Page 571 13.15.2 Discharge for Overflow Spillways......Page 574 13.15.3 Discharge on Submerged Overflow Spillways......Page 578 13.16 Chute or Trough Spillways......Page 581 13.16.1 Slope of Chute Channel......Page 582 13.16.2 Chute Sidewalls......Page 583 13.17 Side-Channel Spillways......Page 584 13.18 Morning Glory or Shaft Spillways......Page 587 14.2 Elements of the Channel Section......Page 600 14.4 State of Flow......Page 603 14.5.2 Computation of Critical Flow......Page 605 14.6.1 Hydraulics of Uniform Flow......Page 609 14.6.2 Computation of Uniform Flow......Page 611 14.8.1 Bottom Longitudinal Slope......Page 616 14.8.4 Hydraulic Efficient Sections......Page 617 14.8.5 Design Procedure......Page 618 14.9 Rigid Channel Carrying Sediment-Laden Water......Page 619 14.10.1 Unit Tractive Force on Channel Boundary......Page 620 14.10.3 The USBR Method......Page 621 14.10.4 The Stability Parameter Method......Page 623 14.11 Loose-Boundary Channel Carrying Sediment-Laden Water......Page 626 14.11.3 Lacey’s Original Regime Theory......Page 627 14.11.4 Hydraulic Basis of the Regime Theory......Page 628 14.11.5 Combining the Regime Theory with the Power Function Theory......Page 629 14.12.1 Dynamic Equation of Gradually Varied Flow......Page 632 14.12.3 Flow Profile Analysis......Page 634 14.13.1 Numerical Integration Method......Page 636 14.13.2 Direct Step Method......Page 638 14.15 Hydraulic Jump......Page 641 15.1 Distribution System Components......Page 648 15.3 Energy Equation of Pipe Flow......Page 649 15.4.1 Friction Factor for Darcy-Weisbach Equation......Page 652 15.5.2 Type II: To Determine Velocity or Flow Rate......Page 657 15.5.3 Type III: To Determine Diameter......Page 658 15.6 Pipe Friction Losses: Hazen-Williams Equation......Page 660 15.8 Minor Head Losses......Page 663 15.9 Single Pipelines......Page 664 15.10 Single Pipelines with Pumps......Page 667 15.11 Pipes in Series......Page 669 15.12 Pipes in Parallel......Page 671 15.13 Branching Pipes......Page 673 15.14 Pipes Network......Page 676 15.15.1 System Configuration......Page 679 15.15.2 Design Flow Estimation......Page 680 15.15.4 Pressure Requirements......Page 681 15.16 A Network Design Project......Page 682 15.18 Storage Tanks......Page 683 15.20.1 System without Storage......Page 684 15.20.3 System with Storage Beyond Demand Center......Page 685 15.22 Pump Classification: Specific Speed......Page 687 15.23 Relations for Geometrically Similar Pumps......Page 688 15.24 Relations for Alterations in the Same Pump......Page 689 15.25 Head Terms in Pumping......Page 691 15.27 Pump Characteristic Curves......Page 692 15.28 Single Pump and Pipeline System......Page 695 15.30 Pumps in Series......Page 697 15.31 Pumps in Parallel......Page 700 15.32 Limit on Pump Location......Page 702 16.1 Types of Drainage Systems......Page 714 16.2 Layout of an Urban Drainage System......Page 715 16.4 Quantity of Wastewater......Page 717 16.5 Friction Coefficient for Sanitary Sewers......Page 719 16.6 Design Procedure for Sanitary Sewers......Page 720 16.7 A Sanitary Sewer Project......Page 721 16.10 Rational Method......Page 726 16.10.1 Frequency Correction factor, Cf......Page 727 16.10.2 Runoff Coefficient, C......Page 728 16.10.4 Rainfall Intensity, i......Page 730 16.10.5 Time of Concentration, tc......Page 732 16.11 Application of the Rational Method......Page 736 16.12 The NRCS (SCS) TR-55 Method......Page 739 16.13 A Storm Sewer Design Project......Page 744 16.14.1 TR-55-Based Procedure......Page 748 16.14.2 Rational-Method-Based Procedure......Page 749 17.2 Surface Drainage for Agricultural Land......Page 760 17.3 Subsurface Drainage for Agricultural Land......Page 762 17.3.1 Layout of Pipe (Tube) Drainage System......Page 764 17.4 Depth and Spacing of Drains......Page 765 17.4.1 Application of Bureau of Reclamation Method......Page 766 17.4.2 Design Discharge for Determining Subsurface Drain Pipe Size......Page 771 17.6 Longitudinal Drainage Systems......Page 773 17.6.1 Design Flows for Longitudinal Drainage......Page 774 17.7 Cross-Drainage Systems: Culverts......Page 776 17.7.1 Design of Culverts......Page 779 17.8 Airport Drainage Systems......Page 785 18.2 Principles of Remote Sensing......Page 796 18.3.1 Remote-Sensing Platforms......Page 797 18.3.2 Remote-Sensing Sensors......Page 798 18.3.3 Image-Processing Systems......Page 799 18.4 Integration of Remote Sensing with GIS......Page 800 18.5.2 Snow......Page 802 18.5.4 Soil Moisture......Page 803 18.5.7 Groundwater......Page 804 18.7 Computer Models for Hydrology......Page 805 18.8 Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology......Page 806 18.9 Statistical Models......Page 807 18.11 Reservoir Planning and Analysis Models......Page 810 18.13.2 Steady-State Flood Hydraulics Models......Page 811 18.13.4 Reservoir Regulation Models......Page 812 18.14 Drainage models......Page 813 18.15 Coupling of Hydrological Models and GIS......Page 815 Appendix A......Page 818 Appendix B......Page 821 Appendix C......Page 822 Appendix D......Page 824 Appendix E......Page 826 Appendix F......Page 827 Appendix G......Page 830 Appendix H......Page 831 Appendix I......Page 833 Appendix J......Page 835 References......Page 837 Answers to Selected Problems ......Page 861 Index......Page 886