Advances in Dairy Microbial Products

Description

Advances in Dairy Microbial Products describes the importance and utility of microbial products used in dairy products. This book explains the makeup of these products in a scientifically sound yet simple manner. The appeal of this book is its holistic approach to addressing the different aspects of the dairy industry, from basic dairy microbial biochemistry to production of dairy products and their nutrient quality, and finally to machine learning applications in dairy industry. Comprised of chapters written and edited by international authorities and researchers with top expertise in dairy products, it offers both established and cutting-edge solutions to the numerous challenges commonly encountered in the industrial processing of milk and the production of milk products. This book offers a highly practical approach to the topic, addressing and tackling the problems faced in the workplace by dairy technologists. Researchers and practitioners will find this book to be an ideal source of thorough and up-to-date information on dairy microbial products while also appealing to beginners seeking to understand how advanced dairy technologies can increase the efficiency of current techniques. Advances in Dairy Microbial Products Copyright Contents List of contributors 1 Global scenario of fermented dairy products: current advancements and future challenges 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Bioactive peptides in fermented milk products 1.3 Advances in the genomics and metabolomics of dairy lactobacilli 1.4 Microencapsulation of a probiotic and prebiotic 1.4.1 Encapsulation of live cells 1.4.1.1 Matrices used for encapsulating microorganisms Alginates Carrageenan Gums Chitosan Starch Cellulose Gelatin Protein-based encapsulating agents 1.4.2 Probiotic encapsulation in methods 1.5 Recent advances on lactose intolerance 1.5.1 Management of lactose intolerance 1.6 Exopolysaccharides from fermented dairy products 1.6.1 Functional properties 1.6.2 Food applications 1.7 Conclusion and future prospective References 2 Recent advances in microbial diversity usage in fermented dairy microbial products 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Global trends and consumption patterns of milk products 2.3 History of fermented dairy products 2.4 Fermentation 2.4.1 Fermentation process 2.4.1.1 Mechanism of gel formation 2.4.1.2 Physicochemical changes 2.5 Classification of fermented milk 2.6 Role of microorganism in milk fermentation technology 2.6.1 Bacteria 2.6.1.1 Lactic acid bacteria Antimicrobial compounds Use as starter cultures Used as a preservative 2.6.1.2 Non-lactic acid bacteria 2.6.1.3 Fungi 2.6.1.4 Yeasts 2.6.1.5 Pathogenic contaminants 2.7 Ecology of fermented microorganism 2.8 Types of dairy products 2.8.1 Dairy products 2.8.2 Curd 2.8.3 Yogurt 2.8.4 Cheese 2.8.5 Butter 2.8.6 Kefir 2.9 Role of advance biotechnology in fermentation technology 2.10 Factors affecting quality of dairy drink 2.10.1 Quality of raw milk 2.10.2 Type of raw milk 2.10.3 Homogenization 2.10.4 Starter culture 2.10.5 Culturing conditions 2.10.6 Cooling References 3 Recent trends in fungal dairy fermented foods 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Status of milk production in India and assorted fermented dairy foods 3.2.1 Cultured milk products 3.2.1.1 Naturally fermented milks 3.2.2 Starter culture-dependent fermented milks 3.2.2.1 Yogurt 3.2.2.2 Dahi 3.2.2.3 Acidophilus milk 3.2.2.4 Bifidus milk 3.2.2.5 Acidophilus-bifidus milk (AB culture) 3.2.2.6 Bulgarian buttermilk 3.2.2.7 Kefir 3.2.2.8 Koumiss 3.2.2.9 Acidophilin 3.2.2.10 Mil-mil and yakult 3.2.2.11 Cheese 3.3 Microorganisms in dairy fermented foods with reference to fungi 3.3.1 Yeasts: A brief overview of yeasts and their role in dairy fermentation 3.3.2 Saccharomyces cerevisiae boulardii 3.4 Yeast fermented dairy products 3.4.1 Koumiss 3.4.2 Kefir 3.4.3 Leben 3.4.4 Liqvan (Lighvan/Levan) 3.5 Mold: A brief overview of molds and their role in dairy fermentation 3.5.1 Viili 3.5.2 Norwegian tettemelk and Swedish långfil 3.5.3 Role in ripening of cheese 3.5.3.1 Fusarium domesticum 3.5.3.2 Penicillium camemberti 3.5.3.3 Penicillium roqueforti 3.5.3.4 Penicillium nalgiovense 3.6 Exploration of probiotic potential of fungal cultures 3.7 Molecular approaches to study fungal dairy fermented foods 3.8 Designing a novel starter 3.9 Conclusion and perspective References 4 Recent trends in alkaline fermented foods 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Alkaline fermented foods of Africa 4.2.1 Dawadawa 4.2.2 Soumbala 4.2.3 Okpeye 4.2.4 Ogiri 4.2.5 Ugba 4.2.6 Aisa 4.2.7 Owoh 4.2.8 Bikalga 4.2.9 Soydawadawa 4.3 Some alkaline fermented foods from Asia 4.3.1 Kinema 4.3.2 Hawaijar 4.3.3 Natto 4.3.4 Chungkookjang 4.4 Fish-based alkaline fermented products 4.4.1 Lanhouin 4.4.2 Momoni 4.4.3 Feseekh 4.5 Significance of alkaline fermented food 4.6 Modern approach in food fermentation 4.6.1 Quality and availability of raw material 4.6.2 The use of starter culture 4.6.3 Standardization of fermentation process 4.6.4 Packaging 4.7 Conclusion and the future prospective References 5 Recent trends in intellectual property rights protection in fermented dairy products 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Nutritional benefits 5.2.1 Probiotics 5.2.2 Fermentation and nutritional quality of food 5.2.3 Intestinal pH balance 5.2.4 Alleviation of lactose intolerance 5.2.5 Biodegradation of phytase 5.3 Fermentation: cultural importance and food security 5.4 Common indigenous fermented dairy products 5.5 Intellectual property and technology management in dairy sector 5.5.1 IP scenario of ICAR in dairy sector 5.6 Patents on advances in fermented dairy products 5.6.1 Patents on thermal treatment of milk 5.6.2 Patents on dairy starter culture 5.6.3 Patents on novel device and techniques in dairy products 5.7 Conclusion and future prospects References 6 Insights into the technological and nutritional aspects of lactic milk drinks: buttermilk 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Buttermilk 6.3 The milk fat globule 6.3.1 The milk fat globule membrane 6.4 Chemical composition and properties of buttermilk 6.5 Types of buttermilk 6.5.1 Cultured buttermilk 6.5.2 Sweet cream buttermilk 6.5.3 Sour cream buttermilk 6.5.4 Commercial buttermilk 6.6 Separation, processing and drying of buttermilk 6.7 Cultured buttermilk 6.7.1 Starter cultures used for cultured buttermilk 6.7.2 Production of cultured buttermilk 6.8 Technological properties of buttermilk 6.8.1 Biofilm formation 6.8.2 Production of beverage 6.8.3 Application of buttermilk in the treatment of industrial surfaces 6.9 Potential health benefits of buttermilk 6.9.1 Reduces blood pressure 6.9.2 Buttermilk helps detoxify the body 6.9.3 Potent tool to fight stomach acidity 6.9.4 Eases constipation 6.9.5 Strengthens the skeletal frame 6.9.6 Natural therapy against ulcers 6.9.7 Treating hemorrhoids 6.10 Advancement in cultured buttermilk technology 6.11 Conclusion References 7 Advancement in acidophilus milk production technology 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Historical background 7.1.2 Milk-based beverages 7.2 Varieties of milk used in fermentation 7.3 Ingredients used in production of acidophilus milk 7.3.1 Probiotic cultures 7.3.2 Prebiotics 7.3.3 Additives 7.4 Production technology of acidophilus milk 7.4.1 Milk supply 7.4.2 Starter culture 7.4.3 Temperature control 7.4.4 Processing 7.4.5 Shelf life 7.5 Characteristics and physiology of Lactobacillus acidophilus 7.6 Mechanism of flavor development 7.7 Therapeutic benefits of acidophilus milk 7.7.1 Lactose maldigestion 7.7.2 Anticarcinogenic 7.7.3 Control of serum cholesterol 7.7.4 Resistor of intestinal foodborne pathogens 7.7.5 Prevention of Clostridium difficile infection 7.8 Conclusions References 8 Advancement of yogurt production technology 8.1 Introduction 8.2 History of yogurt production 8.3 Yogurt types 8.4 Raw material for yogurt manufacture 8.5 Manufacture of yogurt 8.6 Health benefits of yogurt 8.7 New technology for yogurt development 8.8 Yogurt production technology for health enhancement 8.9 Application in Alzheimer therapy 8.10 Women’s health 8.11 Premenstrual syndrome References Further reading 9 Innovative practices in the development of yogurt with special concern over texture and flavor 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Health benefits 9.3 Functional properties 9.4 Innovative technologies 9.4.1 Impact of ultrasound milk process on the texture and flavor of yogurt 9.4.2 Impact of microfluidizing milk on the sensory profile of yogurt 9.4.3 Impact of ultra-high pressure processing on the texture and flavor of yogurt 9.4.4 Role of pulsed electric field in yogurt manufacture 9.5 Food additives 9.6 Conclusion References 10 Pathogenic microorganisms in milk: their source, hazardous role and identification 10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Production of milk around the world 10.1.2 Processing of the milk 10.1.2.1 Pasteurization 10.1.2.2 Filtration 10.2 Microorganisms present in the milk and their sources 10.3 Different types of microorganisms present in milk 10.3.1 Bacillus 10.3.2 Clostridium tyrobutyricum 10.3.3 Pseudomonas 10.3.4 Coryneform bacteria 10.3.5 Lactobacilli 10.3.6 Micrococcus 10.3.7 Coliforms 10.3.8 Listeria monocytogenes 10.3.9 Yersinia enterocolitica 10.3.10 Salmonella 10.3.11 Escherichia coli 10.3.12 Campylobacter jejuni 10.3.13 Virus 10.3.14 Fungi 10.3.15 Parasites 10.4 The economic significance of pathogenic microbes 10.5 Control of contamination of milk by microorganisms 10.6 Identification methods of milk-borne pathogens 10.6.1 Phenotypic methods 10.6.2 Standard plate count method 10.6.3 Molecular and genotypic methods 10.6.4 Flow cytometry 10.7 Microbiological standards of milk 10.8 Conclusion and future perspectives References 11 Fermented pastes using dairy important microbes 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Types of pastes 11.2.1 Fermented shrimp paste 11.2.2 Fermented soybean paste 11.2.3 Fermented red pepper paste 11.2.4 Fermented fish paste 11.2.5 Fermented black garlic paste 11.2.6 Fermented milk tomato paste 11.3 Microbial diversity as inoculum 11.4 Production strategies and biochemistry of fermented paste 11.4.1 Fermented shrimp paste 11.4.2 Soybean paste 11.4.3 Fermented red pepper paste 11.4.4 Fermented fish paste 11.4.4.1 Fermentation method 1 11.4.4.2 Fermentation method 2 11.4.5 Fermented black garlic paste 11.4.6 Fermented milk tomato paste 11.5 Methods of investigation of fermented compounds/sensory characteristics or drivers of liking 11.6 Conclusion References 12 Chemistry and material studies in fermented dairy products 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Fermented dairy foods 12.3 Role of chemistry in fermented dairy foods 12.4 Material studied in fermented dairy foods 12.4.1 Yogurt 12.4.2 Kefir 12.4.3 Dahi (curd) 12.4.4 Acidophilus milk 12.4.5 Various types of cheese 12.5 Chemical composition of fermented dairy foods 12.5.1 Yogurt 12.5.2 Kefir 12.5.3 Dahi (curd) 12.5.4 Sour milk 12.5.5 Buttermilk 12.5.6 Lassi 12.5.7 Cheese 12.6 Consequences of dairy foods 12.7 Physico-chemical characteristics of fermented dairy foods 12.8 Role of microbiological characteristics in fermented dairy foods 12.9 Conclusion and future perspective References 13 Advancement in cheese production technology 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Process of cheese production 13.2.1 Standardization of milk 13.2.2 Pasteurization of milk 13.2.3 Starter and adjunct/secondary culture 13.2.4 Coagulant used 13.2.5 Texturing and cutting 13.2.6 Storage and packaging 13.3 Factors affecting the quality of cheese 13.3.1 Milk and related factors 13.3.1.1 Composition of milk 13.3.1.2 Casein variants or fractions 13.3.1.3 Microbiota of milk 13.3.1.4 Storage of milk 13.3.2 Factors during the process 13.3.2.1 Standardization of milk 13.3.2.2 Pasteurization 13.3.2.3 Coagulant used 13.3.3 Postcheese production factor 13.3.3.1 Storage condition 13.4 Advancement in the cheese process 13.4.1 Trend of milk standardization 13.4.2 A microfiltration 13.4.3 Ultrafiltration 13.4.4 Nanofiltration 13.4.5 Reverse osmosis 13.4.6 Trend of pasteurization of milk 13.4.7 Trend of milk coagulants 13.4.8 Trend of diversified microbes for cheese production 13.4.9 Trend of fortified cheese 13.4.9.1 Probiotic and prebiotic fortified cheese 13.4.9.2 Vitamin-fortified cheese 13.4.9.3 Mineral-fortified cheese 13.4.9.4 Spices and herb-fortified cheese 13.4.9.5 Essential oil-fortified cheese 13.5 Conclusion and future aspects References 14 A new generation of sustainable life forms of milk kefir grains produced from freeze-dried microbial isolates: observati... 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Material and methods 14.2.1 Supplies 14.2.1.1 Ingredients 14.2.2 Methods 14.2.2.1 General 14.2.2.2 Reconstruction experiments 14.2.2.3 Preparation of kefir based on traditional method 14.2.2.4 Experimental model 14.2.2.5 Data capture 14.2.2.6 Data analyses and reporting 14.2.2.7 Morphological features 14.2.2.8 Collective motions and other behavior patterns 14.3 Results and discussion 14.3.1 Reconstruction results 14.3.2 Progression of milk culture 14.3.3 Experimental culture model system 14.3.3.1 Dynamic transformation Collective motion Self-propagation 14.3.3.2 Behavior patterns 14.4 Conclusions or future prospective Acknowledgments References 15 Innovations in preservation and improving functional properties of kefir 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Historical report 15.3 Kefir: concept/characteristics, microbiology, and beverage preparation 15.4 Kefir probiotic microorganisms in the gut-brain axis relationship 15.5 Functional properties of kefir 15.5.1 Kefir probiotic microorganisms in the immunomodulatory activity 15.5.2 Kefir probiotic microorganisms in antitumor anticarcinogenic activity 15.5.3 Kefir probiotic microorganisms in antimicrobial activity 15.6 Preservation and improving functional properties of kefir 15.7 Conclusion and future potential References Further reading 16 Health benefits of probiotics: an overview 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Probiotics and the obesity 16.3 Probiotics and respiratory tract diseases 16.4 Probiotics and gut-brain axis 16.5 Food allergy 16.6 Probiotic health benefits on farm animals 16.7 Health care costs and probiotics 16.8 Challenges for the future and final considerations References Further reading 17 Recent advancements in the production of probiotic fermented beverages 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Dairy-based probiotic fermented milk beverages 17.2.1 Merits of dairy-based beverages as probiotic carriers 17.2.2 Classification of milk-based beverages 17.3 Challenges for production of probiotic fermented dairy beverages 17.3.1 Isolation and screening of strain which should be technologically suitable 17.3.2 Starter cultures 17.3.3 Dose 17.3.4 Viability 17.3.4.1 Viability during production-processing operations and storage 17.3.4.2 Viability in gastrointestinal transit 17.3.5 Growth and survival in fermented dairy beverages at large scale industrial production 17.3.6 Good sensory properties 17.3.6.1 Flavor 17.3.6.2 Texture and mouth feel characteristics 17.3.7 Maintenance of valuable heat-labile molecules 17.4 Advanced strategies to overcome the limitations associated with dairy-based probiotic fermented beverages 17.4.1 Maintenance of viability and functionality of probiotics 17.4.1.1 Enhancing and maintaining probiotic viability and stability during production Immobilization Use of protectants for probiotic stabilization during manufacturing, free-drying, and spray drying Use of encapsulation for probiotic stabilization during manufacturing, free-drying, and spray drying Resistant starch encapsulation 17.4.2 Strategies used to prevent organisms from oxygen stress 17.4.2.1 The use of oxygen scavengers 17.4.2.2 Addition of cysteine 17.4.2.3 Use of oxygen impermeable packaging material 17.4.3 Modifications of the composition of the fermentation medium to improve growth of probiotics in milk 17.4.3.1 Use of functional prebiotic ingredients 17.4.3.2 Supplementation of milk with nutrients 17.4.4 Two-stage fermentation 17.4.5 Applications of direct vat set 17.4.6 Exploitation of cellular stress response for enhanced technological performance/biotechnological approaches 17.4.7 Improvement in growth and survival of probiotics in fermented dairy beverages at large scale industrial production 17.4.7.1 Growth improvement in milk 17.4.7.2 Survival in milk 17.4.8 Uses of starter culture to improve texture and mouthfeel characteristic 17.4.9 Maintenance of valuable heat-labile molecules 17.4.10 Nonviable microorganisms References Further reading 18 Probiotics in dairy products: microencapsulation and delivery 18.1 Probiotics: definitions, classification and consumption trends 18.1.1 Main microorganisms used as probiotics in foods 18.2 Probiotics in foods and beverages 18.3 Factors affecting probiotic survival in foods 18.4 Microencapsulation as strategy to protect vitality and functionality of probiotics 18.5 Coating materials for probiotic delivery in foods 18.6 Use of microencapsulation for dairy products 18.7 Challenge and future prospective References Further reading 19 The effect of innovative processing technologies on probiotics stability 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Factors affecting the survival of probiotics 19.2.1 Fermentation conditions 19.2.2 Freezing and thawing operations 19.2.3 pH and titratable acidity 19.2.4 Oxygen content and redox potential 19.2.5 Storage temperature 19.2.6 Packaging aspects 19.2.7 Food ingredients and additives 19.2.8 Effect of nonthermal processing techniques on probiotics viability 19.2.9 High-power ultrasound 19.3 High pressure processing 19.4 Pulsed electric fields References 20 The effect of thermal processing on probiotics stability 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Stability of probiotics 20.3 Heat-processing techniques and their effect on the viability of probiotics 20.3.1 Influence of food matrix on the viability of probiotic bacteria 20.3.1.1 Dairy product 20.3.1.2 Fruit and vegetables based beverages 20.3.1.3 Other products 20.4 Conclusion References 21 Hydrogels as carrier for the delivery of probiotics 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Polysaccharides 21.2.1 Anionic polysaccharides 21.2.1.1 Alginate 21.2.1.2 Carrageenans 21.2.1.3 Xanthan gum 21.2.1.4 Gellan gum 21.2.1.5 Gum arabic 21.2.1.6 Carboxymethyl chitin and carboxymethyl cellulose 21.2.2 Cationic polysaccharides 21.2.3 Non-ionic polysaccharides 21.2.3.1 Starch 21.2.3.2 Cyclodextrins 21.2.3.3 Guar gum 21.2.4 Amphoteric polysaccharides 21.3 The proteins used as coating agents for probiotic microcapsules 21.3.1 Vegetable-based protein material 21.3.1.1 Soy protein 21.3.1.2 Pea protein 21.3.1.3 Alginate-based material 21.3.1.4 Cereal protein 21.3.2 Animal-based protein material 21.3.2.1 Gelatin 21.3.2.2 Dairy proteins 21.3.2.3 Egg white 21.4 Future trends 21.5 Lipids as edible coating materials for encapsulation of probiotics 21.5.1 Fats 21.5.2 Waxes 21.5.3 Phospholipids 21.6 Conclusion and future remarks References 22 Dairy-derived antimicrobial substances: microorganisms, applications and recent trends 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Dairy-derived bioactive peptides 22.2.1 Stimulant-opioid peptides 22.2.2 Antihypertensive peptides 22.2.3 Antithrombotic peptides 22.2.4 Antimicrobial peptides 22.2.4.1 Health effects of antimicrobial peptides 22.2.4.2 Production of antimicrobial peptides Enzymatically obtained antimicrobial peptides Microbiologically obtained antimicrobial peptides Novel techniques for production of antimicrobial peptides 22.2.4.3 Action mechanism of antimicrobial peptides 22.3 Dairy-derived organic acids 22.3.1 Antimicrobial effect of organic acids 22.4 Conclusion References 23 Bacteriocins and antimicrobial peptides as an alternative to antibiotics Abbreviations 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Alternatives to antibiotics 23.3 Bacteriocins 23.4 Classification and mode of actions of bacteriocins 23.4.1 Class I bacteriocins 23.4.2 Class II bacteriocins 23.4.3 Class III bacteriocins 23.4.4 Class IV bacteriocins 23.5 Antimicrobial peptides 23.6 General classification of antimicrobial peptides 23.6.1 Type 1 (alpha-helical peptides) 23.6.2 Type 2 (beta-sheet peptides) 23.6.3 Type 3 (peptides with repeated units of few amino acids) 23.6.4 Type 4 (looped peptides with single bond) 23.7 Mechanistic action of antimicrobial peptides 23.8 Food-derived antimicrobial peptides 23.9 Synthetic designed peptides 23.10 Safety aspects of bacteriocins and antimicrobial peptides 23.11 Conclusion References 24 Nanobiotechnology in fermented dairy products 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Application of nano (bio)technology in dairy industry 24.3 Enhancement of the survival of novel microorganisms and nutraceuticals 24.4 Flavor enhancements used as delivery systems for colors, flavors, preservatives, nutrients, and nutraceuticals 24.5 Nanocarriers of nutraceuticals and therapeutic agents 24.6 Detection of adulteration and spoilage 24.7 Food packaging 24.8 Nanofilteration 24.9 Safety and health implications 24.10 Regulatory 24.11 Future direction of nanotechnology in fermented dairy foods References 25 Application of nanomaterials in the dairy industry 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Application of nanomaterials in dairy industries 25.2.1 Nanomaterials used to increase the nutritional value 25.2.1.1 Iron, calcium, and zinc nanoparticles 25.2.1.2 Nano-liposomes 25.2.1.3 Microcapsules 25.2.2 Nanomaterials used for quality control 25.2.2.1 Fe3O4 nanoparticles-carbon nanotubes interface 25.2.2.2 Silver and gold nanorods 25.2.2.3 Nanoemulsified essential oils 25.2.2.4 Nanopowder 25.2.2.5 Liposomes 25.2.3 Nanomaterials used as antimicrobial agents 25.2.3.1 Nanolaminate coating 25.2.3.2 Nanovesicle and liposomes 25.2.3.3 Nanohydrogels 25.2.3.4 Nanocomposite coatings embedded with copper nanoparticles 25.2.4 Nanoparticles used as delivery agents 25.2.4.1 Emulsion and micelles 25.2.4.2 Liposomes 25.2.5 Nanoparticles for detection 25.2.5.1 Metal nanoparticles and quantum dots 25.2.5.2 MIP NPs and multi-walled carbon nano-tube 25.2.6 Nanoparticles applied for packaging 25.2.6.1 Nanoparticles 25.2.6.2 Nanocomposite 25.3 Conclusion References 26 Development of biosensor-based technology for the detection of pathogenic microorganisms and biomolecules in dairy products 26.1 Dairy products and microorganisms 26.2 Traditional methods for detection of pathogenic microorganisms in dairy products 26.2.1 Culture-based conventional methods 26.2.2 Polymerase chain reaction 26.2.3 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay 26.3 Biosensors 26.3.1 Ideal biosensor 26.3.2 Methods of immobilization of bioelement onto transducer 26.3.2.1 Physical adsorption 26.3.2.2 Encapsulation or confining 26.3.2.3 Covalent binding 26.3.2.4 Entrapment 26.3.2.5 Electrochemical polymerization 26.3.3 Generations of biosensors 26.3.3.1 First generation biosensors 26.3.3.2 Second generation biosensors 26.3.3.3 Third generation biosensors 26.3.4 Types of biosensors 26.3.4.1 Electrochemical biosensors 26.3.4.2 Amperometric biosensors Detection of lactose concentration in raw milk by amperometric biosensor 26.3.4.3 Potentiometric biosensors Detection of urea in the milk by potentiometric biosensor 26.3.4.4 Optical-based biosensors 26.3.4.5 Mass sensitive biosensors or piezoelectric biosensors 26.3.4.6 Thermometric biosensors References 27 Machine Learning applications in dairy farm management 27.1 Introduction to dairy farm management 27.2 The state of art of dairying in developing countries 27.3 Knowledge characteristics for dairy management 27.3.1 Declarative knowledge 27.3.1.1 Culmination 27.3.1.2 Assurance 27.3.2 Procedural knowledge 27.3.2.1 Generality 27.3.2.2 Certainty 27.3.2.3 Knowledge level 27.4 Methods of knowledge representation for dairy management 27.4.1 Production rules 27.4.2 Fuzzy logic 27.4.3 Bayesian belief network 27.4.4 Conditional causal model 27.4.5 Neural network 27.5 Application of machine learning in dairy industry 27.5.1 Application of machine learning in milk procurement and billing 27.5.2 Application of machine learning in plant automation 27.5.3 Application of machine learning in dairy computerized network 27.5.4 Application of machine learning in dairy packaging 27.5.5 Application of machine learning in supply chain integration and traceability 27.5.6 Application of machine learning in vendor development 27.6 Dairy farm management functions 27.6.1 Planning 27.6.1.1 Evaluating the inner and outside circumstance of the dairy farm 27.6.1.2 Setting objective 27.6.1.3 Strategy design 27.6.1.4 Activity design and resource planning 27.6.2 Implementation 27.6.3 Monitoring and evaluation 27.6.3.1 Assessment 27.6.3.2 Control 27.7 Future perspective 27.8 Conclusion References Index