Energy from Waste: Production and Storage

Description

Conversion of waste into value-added products such as energy transforms a potential environmental problem into a sustainable solution. Energy from Waste: Production and Storage focuses on the conversion of waste from various sources for use in energy production and storage applications. It provides the state-of-the-art in developing advanced materials and chemicals for energy applications using wastes and discusses the various treatment processes and technologies. Covers synthesis of usable materials from various types of waste and their application in energy production and storage Presents an overview and applications of wastes for green energy production and storage Provides fundamentals of electrochemical behavior and understanding of energy devices such as fuel cells, batteries, supercapacitors, and solar cells Elaborates on advanced technologies used to convert waste into green biochemical energy This work provides new direction to scientists, researchers, and students in materials and chemical engineering and related subjects seeking to sustainable solutions to energy production and waste management. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Preface Editors List of Contributors PART 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Biowastes for Energy: An Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Source and Significance of Biowastes 1.2.1 Biowastes from Forest and Wood Processing Industries 1.2.2 Biowaste from Food Processing 1.2.3 Biowaste from the Paper Industry 1.2.4 Biowaste from Municipal Solid 1.2.5 Animal Waste 1.3 Pretreatment of Biowaste 1.3.1 Pretreatment of Animal Fat Waste 1.3.2 Lignocellulosic Waste Pretreatment 1.3.3 Pretreatment of Waste Cooking Oil 1.3.4 Removal of Inhibitory Compounds and Salts 1.4 Biowaste to Bioenergy 1.4.1 Biodiesel from Biowaste 1.4.2 Biogas from Biowaste 1.4.3 Bioelectricity from Biowaste 1.4.4 Bioalcohol from Biowaste 1.4.5 Electrochemical Energy from Biowastes 1.5 Conclusions References PART 2 Municipal Waste for Energy Chapter 2 Operational Tools and Techniques for Municipal Solid Waste Management 2.1 Introduction 2.2 An Overview of Available Tools and Techniques for MSW Management 2.2.1 Source Reduction 2.2.2 Reuse and Recycling 2.2.3 Landfilling 2.2.4 Composting 2.2.5 Gasification 2.2.6 Incineration 2.2.7 Pyrolysis 2.2.8 Anaerobic Digestion 2.3 Experiences from Selected Innovative Approaches 2.3.1 Australia’s Waste and Resource Recovery Infrastructure 2.3.2 Waste-to-Energy Facility in Singapore 2.4 Conclusions References Chapter 3 Municipal Waste for Energy Production 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Techniques of Generating Energy from MSW 3.3 Improved and Emerging Technologies of MSW-to-Energy 3.4 Good Practices and Potential of MSW-to-Energy 3.5 Conclusions References Chapter 4 A Brief History of Energy Recovery from Municipal Solid Waste 4.1 Introduction 4.2 History of MSW Disposal 4.3 Thermal and Biological Energy Conversion Processes 4.4 Waste-to-Energy – Landfilling 4.4.1 Landfill Gas Production 4.4.2 Energy Recovery and Utilization 4.4.3 Limitations and Challenges 4.5 Anaerobic Digestion 4.5.1 Limitations and Challenges 4.6 Incineration 4.6.1 Incineration Process Basics 4.6.2 Process Design and Operation Optimization over Time 4.6.3 Limitations and Challenges 4.7 Gasification and Pyrolysis 4.7.1 Processes Overview 4.7.2 Limitations and Challenges 4.8 Energy Analysis 4.9 Country Economies and MSW Energy Potential 4.10 Future of Energy Recovery from Waste References Chapter 5 Materials and Energy from Waste Plastics: A Catalytic Approach 5.1 Pyrolysis–Catalysis of Waste Plastics 5.1.1 Hydrogen Gas Production from Wastage Plastics 5.1.1.1 Reactor Design for Hydrogen-Rich Gas Production from Wastage of Plastics 5.1.1.2 The Effect of Operational Parameters on the Level of Hydrogen Production from Plastic Wastages 5.1.1.3 The Effect of Catalyst Type on the Level of Hydrogen Production from Waste Plastics 5.1.1.4 The Effect of Catalyst Temperature on Hydrogen Production from Waste Plastics 5.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes Production from Waste Plastics 5.1.2.1 The Effect of Operational Parameters on the Production of Carbon Nanotubes from Waste Plastics 5.2 Nanocatalysts in Water Treatment 5.2.1 Zero-valent Iron Nanoparticles as Catalysts 5.2.2 Titanium Dioxide as Catalysts 5.2.3 Nanostructured Iron Oxide as Catalysts 5.2.4 Magnetic Nanoparticles as Catalysts 5.2.5 Other Nanomaterials as Catalysts 5.3 Biocatalysts for Converting Keratin Waste 5.4 Catalysts for Biofuels Production from Waste Biomass References Chapter 6 Elucidating Sustainable Waste Management Approaches along with Waste-to-Energy Pathways: A Critical Review 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Wastes and Their Types 6.2.1 Agricultural Waste 6.2.2 Domestic Waste 6.2.3 Industrial Waste 6.2.4 Biomedical Waste 6.2.4.1 The Risks Associated with Biomedical Waste 6.2.5 E-Waste 6.2.6 Nuclear Waste 6.3 Sustainable Waste Management Approaches 6.4 Waste-to-Energy Technology 6.4.1 Conventional Methods 6.4.2 Future Trends and Developing Technology 6.5 Conclusions References Chapter 7 Biomass Downdraft Gasifier: State of the Art of Reactor Design 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Downdraft Biomass Gasification Process 7.3 Preliminary Calculation for Designing Downdraft Gasifiers 7.4 Design of Downdraft Gasifier 7.4.1 Imbert-Type Downdraft Gasifier 7.4.2 Stratified Downdraft Gasifier 7.4.3 Modified Downdraft Gasifier Designs 7.4.3.1 Internal Recycling of Pyrolysis Gas 7.4.3.2 Separating Gasifier into Two Stages 7.4.3.3 Supplying More Air Stages 7.4.3.4 Adjusting Throat Diameter 7.4.3.5 Extending Reduction Zone Length 7.5 Status of Downdraft Gasifier Designs 7.5.1 Multi-stage downdraft gasifier by Tarpo 7.5.2 Moving Injection Horizontal Gasification (MIHG) Technology by Wildfire Energy 7.5.3 GP750 Gasifier Design 7.6 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 8 Food-Based Waste for Energy 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Current Conversion Technologies for Waste to Energy 8.2.1 Biological Technology 8.2.1.1 Composting 8.2.1.2 Anaerobic Digestion 8.2.1.3 Fermentation 8.2.2 Thermal and Thermochemical Technology 8.2.2.1 Incineration 8.2.2.2 Pyrolysis 8.2.2.3 Gasification 8.2.2.4 Plasma Treatment 8.2.2.5 Hydrothermal Carbonization 8.2.3 Transesterification (Esterification 8.2.4 Bioelectrochemical Systems 8.3 Useful Products from Food Waste 8.3.1 Gaseous-State Products 8.3.1.1 Biogas (Biomethane) 8.3.1.2 Synthetic Gas (Syngas) 8.3.1.3 Biohydrogen 8.3.2 Liquid-state Products 8.3.2.1 Biodiesel 8.3.2.2 Bioethanol 8.3.2.3 Pyrolysis Oil (Bio-Oil) 8.3.3 Solid-State Products 8.3.3.1 Biochar (Hydrochar) 8.3.3.2 Compost 8.4 Conclusions References PART 3 Waste for Biochemicals and Bioenergy Chapter 9 Biowastes for Ethanol Production 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 What Are Biofuels and Biomass? 9.1.2 What Are Biowastes? 9.1.3 Why Bioethanol? 9.1.4 Global Production of Biofuels and Bioethanol 9.2 The Sources of Bioethanol 9.3 Mechanism of Bioethanol Production 9.3.1 Hydrolysis Process 9.3.1.1 First-Generation Hydrolysis 9.3.1.2 Second-Generation Hydrolysis 9.3.2 Detoxification Process 9.3.3 Fermentation Process 9.4 Bioethanol Production Systems 9.4.1 Production Systems Based on First-Generation Feedstocks 9.4.1.1 Sugar-Based Feedstocks 9.4.1.2 Starch-Based Feedstock 9.4.2 P roduction Systems Based on Second-Generation Feedstock 9.4.2.1 Physical Pretreatment 9.4.2.2 Chemical Pretreatment 9.4.2.3 Physiochemical Pretreatment 9.4.2.4 Biological Pretreatment 9.5 Brief Evaluation on the Market of Bioethanol Production from Biowastes 9.6 Conclusions References Chapter 10 Waste Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Waste Oils 10.2.1 WCO 10.2.2 FOG 10.2.3 PFAD 10.2.4 POME 10.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Waste Oil 10.3.1 Moisture Content 10.3.2 Acid Number 10.3.3 Saponification Value (SV) 10.4 Production of Biodiesel from Waste Oil 10.5 Biodiesel Properties 10.5.1 Density and Kinematic Viscosity 10.5.2 Flash Point 10.5.3 Cloud Point and Pour Point 10.5.4 Cetane Number 10.6 Engine Performance and Emissions 10.6.1 Engine Performance 10.6.2 Exhaust Emissions 10.7 Conclusions References Chapter 11 Biowaste-Based Microbial Fuel Cells for Bioelectricity Generation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Principle of MFC 11.3 Factors Affecting the Recovery of Energy from Wastewater in MFC 11.3.1 Microbial Inoculum 11.3.2 Cathode Reaction 11.3.3 Separator and Ion Exchange Membrane 11.3.4 Design and Configuration of the System 11.3.5 Hydraulic Retention Time 11.4 Treatment of Hazardous Pollutants in MFC 11.4.1 Reduction and Recovery of Heavy Metals 11.4.2 Dyes Reduction 11.5 Use of Modified Electrodes for Performance Improvement. 11.6 Large-Scale Implications of MFC in Wastewater Treatment and Electricity Production 11.7 Future Prospective and Conclusions References Chapter 12 Biowaste-Based Microbial Fuel Cells 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Different Types of Biowaste Exploited as Substrate 12.2.1 Food or Kitchen Waste 12.2.2 Paper Industry Waste 12.2.3 Lignocellulosic Biomaterials 12.2.4 Animal Waste 12.2.5 Municipal Solid Waste 12.3 Biowaste to Bioenergy Conversion 12.4 Biowaste-Based MFC 12.5 Applications 12.5.1 Bioelectricity Production 12.5.2 Wastewater Treatment 12.5.3 Removal/Recovery of Heavy Metals 12.5.4 Biohydrogen Production 12.5.5 Biosensor Fabrication 12.5.6 Bioremediation 12.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives References Chapter 13 Recent Development in Microbial Fuel Cells Using Biowaste 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Microbial Fuel Cells 13.2.1 Structural Configurations 13.3 Types of MFCs on the Basis of Commercialization 13.3.1 Low-Cost MFCs 13.3.2 Compost-Based MFCs 13.4 Fundamental Bioelectricity Generation in MFCs 13.5 Progress in the Development of Cost-Effective Electrode Materials for MFCs 13.5.1 Electrode Materials 13.5.2 Anode Materials 13.5.3 Cathode Materials 13.6 Factors Affecting the MFC’s Efficiency 13.6.1 pH Buffer and Electrolyte 13.6.2 Effect of Temperature 13.7 Applications of MFCs 13.7.1 Biobattery 13.7.2 Wastewater Treatment 13.7.3 Remote Biosensors 13.8 Conclusions References Chapter 14 Waste-Derived Carbon Materials for Hydrogen Storage 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Hydrogen Physical Storage Practices 14.1.2 Carbon-Based Porous Materials for Hydrogen Storage 14.1.3 Carbon Nanostructures Derived from Biomass Waste for Hydrogen Storage 14.2 Mechanism of Hydrogen Adsorption and Storage Using Porous Materials 14.2.1 Molecular Potential 14.2.2 Physical Adsorption Rate 14.2.3 Modeling Equations of Physical Adsorption of Hydrogen on Carbon Porous Materials 14.3 Current Challenges of Hydrogen Storage Using Carbon-Based Materials 14.4 Concepts for Improvement of Hydrogen Adsorption on Nanoporous Adsorbent Materials 14.5 Preparation and Activation of Hierarchal Porous Carbon 14.6 Hydrogen Adsorption Rates of Different Carbon-Based Porous Materials References Chapter 15 Organic Waste for Hydrogen Production 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Organic Wastes: Types and Components 15.3 Pretreatments of Organic Wastes 15.3.1 Physical Treatment Methods 15.3.2 Chemical Treatment Methods 15.3.3 Biological Treatment Methods 15.4 Production of Hydrogen from Organic Wastes 15.4.1 Waste-Activated Sludges for Hydrogen Production 15.4.2 Algae Biomasses for Hydrogen Production 15.4.3 Cellulose-Based Biomasses for Hydrogen Production 15.4.4 Starch-Based Biomasses for Hydrogen Production 15.4.5 Food Wastes for Hydrogen Production 15.4.6 Wastewater for Hydrogen Production 15.5 Conclusions References Chapter 16 Recycling E-Waste for Hydrogen Energy Production and Replacement as Building Construction Materials 16.1 Introduction 16.2 E-Waste Composition 16.3 E-Waste Processing Techniques 16.3.1 Landfill 16.3.2 Thermochemical Combustion Techniques 16.4 Hydrogen Energy Production from E-Wastes 16.4.1 Natural Gas Reforming 16.4.2 Electrolytic Process 16.4.3 Solar-Driven Water Splitting 16.5 E-Waste as an Alternative to the Concrete Mixture for Building Construction 16.5.1 E-Waste in Concrete and Cement Pastes 16.5.2 E-Waste in Bricks 16.6 Conclusions References PART 4 Waste for Advanced Energy Devices Chapter 17 Biowaste-Derived Carbon for Solar Cells 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Brief History 17.3 Synthesis Techniques 17.4 Top-Down Approach 17.5 Bottom-Up Technique 17.6 Top-Down Collective Technique 17.7 Photovoltaics 17.8 Conclusions References Chapter 18 Biowastes for Metal-Ion Batteries 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Biowaste-Derived Carbons for Alkali-Ion Batteries 18.2.1 Non-doped Carbonaceous Materials 18.2.2 Doped Carbonaceous Materials 18.3 Composites of Biowaste-Derived Carbonaceous Materials for Alkali-Ion Batteries 18.4 Summary and Future Perspectives Acknowledgment References Chapter 19 NaFePO[sub(4)] Regenerated from Failed Commercial Li-Ion Batteries for Na-Ion Battery Applications 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Literature Survey 19.2.1 Brief Note on Recycling Methods 19.2.2 Brief Note on Commercialized Lithium-Ion Batteries 19.2.3 Brief Note on Opportunities and Challenges in Reuse and Recycling 19.2.4 NaFePO[sub(4)] as Cathode for Sodium-Ion Battery 19.3 Regenerating Spent LiFePO[sub(4)] to NaFePO[sub(4)] 19.3.1 Delithiation of Spent LiFePO[sub(4)] 19.3.2 Regeneration of LiFePO[sub(4)] to NaFePO[sub(4)] 19.3.3 Recycling of LiFePO[sub(4)] 19.3.4 Effect of Sodiation Time 19.3.5 Effect of NaI Stoichiometry 19.3.6 Effect of Solvents 19.3.7 Effect of Sodiation Temperature 19.4 Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 20 Polymeric Wastes for Metal-Ion Batteries 20.1 Introduction 20.2 An Overview of Polymer Wastes 20.3 Environmental, Ecosystemic, and Economic Advantages 20.4 Drawbacks of Using Polymer Waste and Ways to Overcome 20.5 Different Treatment Strategies of Polymeric Wastes 20.6 Applications of Treated Polymeric Waste for Metal-Ion Batteries 20.6.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) 20.6.2 Sodium-Ion Batteries (SIBs) 20.6.3 Potassium-Ion Batteries (PIBs) 20.7 Summary and Outlook Acknowledgments References Chapter 21 Biowaste-Derived Components for Zn–Air Battery 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Working Principles of Zn–Air Batteries 21.3 Energy Storage Mechanisms for Air Cathodes 21.4 Biowaste-Derived Bifunctional Electrocatalysts 21.4.1 Treatment of Biowaste-Derived Bifunctional Electrocatalysts 21.4.2 Representative Biowaste-Derived Bifunctional Electrocatalysts 21.5 Other Biowaste-Derived Materials for ZABs 21.5.1 Aqueous Binder 21.5.2 Gel Polymer Electrolyte and Separator 21.6 Conclusions and Perspectives Acknowledgements References Chapter 22 Recycling of Wastes Generated in Automobile Metal–Air Batteries 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Architecture of Metal–Air Battery 22.3 Aluminum–Air Battery 22.3.1 Recycling of Aluminum Hydroxide 22.3.2 Hall–Heroult Process 22.3.3 Energy Saving and Carbon Footprint of Aluminum Recycling 22.3.4 Waste Generated in Electrolyte and Air Cathode 22.4 Zinc–Air Battery 22.4.1 Hydrometallurgical Process 22.4.2 Pyrometallurgical Process 22.4.3 Energy Saving and Carbon Footprint of Zinc Recycling 22.4.4 Waste Generated in Electrolyte and Air Cathode 22.5 Magnesium–Air Battery 22.5.1 Recycling of Magnesium Hydroxide 22.5.2 Thermal Reduction Process 22.5.3 Electrolytic Process 22.5.4 Alternative Routes 22.5.5 Energy Saving and Carbon Footprint of Magnesium Recycling 22.5.6 Waste Generated in Electrolyte and Air Cathode 22.6 Lithium–Air Battery 22.6.1 Recycling of Lithium Hydroxide 22.6.2 Recycling of Lithium Oxide and Lithium Peroxide 22.6.3 Recent Developments in the Recycling of Lithium- Based Battery 22.6.4 Climate Impact of Lithium–Air Battery 22.6.5 Waste Generated in Electrolyte and Air Cathode 22.7 New Approach to Recycling the Air Cathodes 22.8 Conclusions References Chapter 23 Biowastes for Metal–Sulfur Batteries 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Biowaste Carbon Acts as Sulfur Host in Li–S Batteries 23.2.1 Structural Design 23.2.1.1 Biowaste-Derived Porous Carbon 23.2.1.2 Biowaste Carbon with Regular Morphology Structure 23.2.2 Heteroatom Doping 23.2.3 Composites as Sulfur Host 23.3 Biowaste-Derived Materials Used as Separators for Li–S Batteries 23.3.1 Biowaste-Derived Carbon Film Coated on Separator 23.3.2 Biowaste-Derived Carbon as Free-standing Interlayer 23.4 Biowaste Materials as Binder of Sulfur Cathode for Li–S Batteries 23.5 Biowaste-Derived Carbon for Na–S Batteries 23.6 Conclusions and Outlook References Chapter 24 High-Performance Supercapacitors Based on Biowastes for Sustainable Future 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Charge Storage Mechanism in Biowaste-Derived Supercapacitors 24.2.1 Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitors 24.2.2 Pseudocapacitors and Hybrid Supercapacitors 24.3 Supercapacitor Based on Biowaste-Derived Carbons 24.3.1 Electrochemical Double Layer-Based Supercapacitors 24.3.1.1 Role of Electrolytes 24.3.2 Hybrid Supercapacitors 24.4 Application of Bio-Derived Carbon in Flexible Devices 24.5 Conclusions References Chapter 25 Hybrid Biowaste Materials for Supercapacitors 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Classification of Hybrid Biowaste Materials 25.2.1 Conductive Polymers/Biowaste Hybrid 25.2.2 Metal Oxides/Biowaste Hybrid 25.2.3 Heteroatoms-Doped Biowaste Hybrid 25.2.4 Other Biowaste Hybrid Materials 25.3 Advantages and Limitations of Hybrid Biowaste Materials 25.4 Applications of Hybrid Biowaste Materials for Supercapacitors 25.4.1 Conducting Polymers/Biowaste Hybrid as an Electrode for Supercapacitors 25.4.2 Metal Oxides/Biowaste Hybrid as an Electrode for Supercapacitors 25.4.3 Heteroatoms/Biowaste Hybrid as an Electrode Material for Supercapacitors 25.4.4 Other Biowaste Hybrid Materials as an Electrode for Supercapacitors 25.5 Conclusions and Future Outlook References Chapter 26 Polymeric Wastes for Supercapacitors 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Carbon-Based Electrode from Polymer Waste for Supercapacitor Applications 26.2.1 Synthetic Methods of Carbon Electrode Materials 26.2.1.1 Activation Method 26.2.1.2 Template Method 26.2.1.3 Hydrothermal Carbonization Method 26.3 Polymeric Waste-Derived Electrode Materials for Supercapacitors 26.3.1 Polyethylene 26.3.2 Polystyrene 26.3.3 Polyethylene Terephthalate 26.3.4 Polymer Waste Based on Fluorine and Chlorine 26.4 Conclusions References Chapter 27 Carbon Nanostructures Derived from Polymeric Wastes for Supercapacitors 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Market Value 27.3 Classification of Energy Storage Devices 27.4 Types and Recycling Methods of Polymer Wastes 27.5 Polymer Wastes Management for Supercapacitors 27.5.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition 27.5.2 Hydrothermal Carbonization 27.5.3 Pyrolysis 27.5.4 Chemical and Physical Activations 27.6 General Conclusions and Future Perspectives Acknowledgments References Chapter 28 Supercapacitors Based on Waste Generated in Automobiles 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Automobile Waste – Recycling vs Dumping 28.3 Supercapacitors Derived from Different Automobile Wastes 28.3.1 From Waste Engine Oil (WEO) 28.3.1.1 Hierarchical Porous Carbon Nanosheets (HPCNs) 28.3.1.2 Porous Carbon/ZnS Nanocomposite 28.3.2 From Scrap Waste Tires 28.3.2.1 Activated Carbons 28.3.3 From PM[sub(2.5)] Pollutant 28.3.3.1 TPF-Derived SCs 28.3.3.2 Diesel Vehicle-Derived PM[sub(2.5)] Carbon Nanoparticles (PM-CNPs) 28.4 Conclusive Remarks Acknowledgments References Chapter 29 Halogenated Polymeric Wastes for Green Functional Carbon Materials 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Brief Introduction to Dehalogenation Strategy 29.3 Dehalogenation for Tunable Compositions in Carbon 29.4 Dehalogenation Strategy for Materials Structuring and Pore Management 29.5 Electrochemical Applications of Dehalogenated Carbon 29.6 Conclusions and Perspectives References Chapter 30 Waste Mechanical Energy Harvesting from Vehicles by Smart Materials 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Piezoelectric and Triboelectric Effects 30.2.1 Piezoelectric Effect 30.2.2 Triboelectric Effect 30.3 Piezoelectric Applications 30.4 Triboelectric Applications 30.5 Hybrid Applications 30.6 Conclusions and Future Prospects References Index