Sonochemistry. Voume 2: Applications and Developments

Description

In the 1980’s sonochemistry was considered to be a rather restricted branch of chemistry involving the ways in which ultrasound could improve synthetic procedures, predominantly in heterogeneous systems and particularly for organometallic reactions. Within a few years the subject began to expand into other disciplines including food technology, environmental protection and the extraction of natural materials. Scientific interest grew and led to the formation of the European Society of Sonochemistry in 1990 and the launch of a new journal Ultrasonics Sonochemistry in 1994. The subject continues to develop as an exciting and multi-disciplinary science with the participation of not only chemists but also physicists, engineers and biologists. The resulting cross-fertilisation of ideas has led to the rapid growth of interdisciplinary research and provided an ideal way for young researchers to expand their knowledge and appreciation of the ways in which different sciences can interact. It expands scientific knowledge through an opening of the closed doors that sometimes restrict the more specialist sciences. The journey of exploration in sonochemistry and its expansion into new fields of science and engineering is recounted in "Sonochemistry Evolution and Expansion" written by two pioneers in the field. It is unlike other texts about sonochemistry in that it follows the chronological developments in several very different applications of sonochemistry through the research experiences of the two authors Tim Mason and Mircea Vinatoru. Designed for chemists and chemical engineers Written by two experts and practitioners in the subject Volume 1 covers the historical background and evolution of sonochemistry Volume 2 explains the wider applications and expansion of the subject VOLUME 2 Applications and Developments: Volume 2 contains six chapters which detail the developments of sonochemistry in fields which continue to attract considerable research and development interest from academia and industry. The topics range from the important developments in chemical synthesis through food technology and materials processing to therapeutic ultrasound. The authors have made contributions to all of these and so the content is written in a way which should be understandable to readers whose expertise may not necessarily be in the individual topic. Each of the applications and developments described help to illustrate not only the diverse nature of sonochemistry but also the unifying theme of the effects of acoustic cavitation on a wide range of procedures. Descrbes various applications of sonochemistry today. Practical guidelines for the use of ultrasound in the laboratory and in industry are displayed. Cover Half Title Also of Interest Sonochemistry. Volume 2: Applications and Developments Copyright Preface for Volume 2 Contents 5. Sonochemical synthesis 5.1 Historical introduction 5.1.1 Mechanistic aspects 5.1.2 Synthetic aspects 5.2 Sonochemical synthesis in Coventry 5.2.1 The Ullmann reaction 5.2.2 Halogenation of aromatics using CuBr2 supported on alumina 5.2.3 O-Alkylation of hindered phenols 5.2.4 O-Alkylation of 5-hydroxychromones 5.2.5 Ultrasonic effects on metal powders and sonochemical catalysis 5.2.5.1 Particle size reduction of metal powders 5.2.5.1.1 Effect of frequency 5.2.5.1.2 Effect of bubbled gas 5.2.5.1.3 Effect of temperature 5.2.5.2 Simmons–Smith cyclopropanation 5.2.5.2.1 Calculation of the “efficiency” of the Simmons–Smith cyclopropanation reaction at different frequencies 5.2.5.3 Nickel-catalysed hydrogenation of oct-1-ene 5.2.5.4 Diels–Alder cyclization reaction 5.2.5.5 Friedel–Crafts reactions 5.2.5.6 Sonochemical switching and the reaction of lead tetraacetate with styrene 5.3 Sonochemical synthesis in Romania 5.3.1 Charge transfer complexes 5.3.1.1 Electronic absorption spectrum of triphenylmethyl halogen derivatives with nitrobenzene 5.3.1.2 The chemical reactions of triphenylmethyl halogen derivatives with nitrobenzene 5.3.1.2.1 Products of reaction between triphenylchloromethane and nitrobenzene 5.3.1.2.2 Reaction products of triphenylbromomethane with nitrobenzene 5.3.1.2.3 Comparison of results 5.3.1.3 The chemical reactions of triphenyliodomethane with nitrobenzene (NB) 5.3.1.4 The reactions of triphenylmethane and triphenylmethyl carbinol with NB 5.3.1.5 The chemical reactions of benzoyl chloride with nitrobenzene 5.3.2 Self-assembly membranes 5.3.3 Attempts to cause automerization of C13-labelled naphthalene 5.3.4 Ultrasound-assisted esterification using enzymes 5.3.5 Sonochemical preparation of catalysts 5.4 Concluding remarks References 6. Surface coating, metallurgy and materials technology 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Electroplating with ultrasound 6.2.1 Introduction 6.2.1.1 Surface preparation 6.2.1.2 The benefits of using ultrasound in plating 6.2.2 Electroplating in Coventry 6.2.2.1 Chromium plating 6.2.2.1.1 Small-scale chrome-plating equipment 6.2.2.1.2 Pilot-scale chrome-plating equipment 6.2.2.2 Nickel and composite electroplating 6.3 Electroless plating with ultrasound 6.3.1 Electroless nickel 6.3.1.1 Electroless nickel studies in Coventry 6.3.2 Electroless copper 6.3.2.1 Electroless copper studies in Coventry 6.4 Printed circuit board technology 6.4.1 Surface preparation 6.4.2 Electroless plating on PCBs 6.4.3 Improved solder joints in PCBs 6.4.3.1 The use of electroless gold 6.4.3.2 The use of electroless copper 6.5 Production of nanoparticles using pulsed sonoelectrochemistry 6.5.1 Introduction 6.5.2 Metal nanoparticle synthesis in Coventry – the SELECTNANO project 6.6 Metallurgy 6.6.1 Introduction to light metal casting 6.6.2 Preliminary work at Coventry 6.6.3 1996 Coventry group visit Moscow 6.7 The joint venture company Industrial Applications for Ultrasonics (IUS) 6.7.1 Ultrasonic treatment of molten and solidifying aluminium 6.7.1.1 Aluminium melt refining technology (using transducer A) 6.7.1.2 Aluminium grain modification technology (using transducer B) 6.7.2 Ultrasonic impact treatment of metal surfaces 6.7.3 Electric arc welding with ultrasonics 6.7.4 Ultrasonically assisted metal on metal coating 6.7.5 Ultrasonics for Al–Pb antifriction composites 6.8 Polymer science 6.8.1 Polymer degradation 6.8.2 Radical polymerization 6.8.3 Emulsion polymerization 6.8.4 Electroinitiated polymerization 6.9 Small projects with industry 6.9.1 Ultrasonically assisted spray coating 6.9.2 Encapsulation 6.9.3 Crystallization – the synthesis of zeolites 6.10 Concluding remarks References 7. Therapeutic ultrasound 7.1 General introduction 7.2 Low-frequency ultrasound 20–100 kHz 7.2.1 Cutting and drilling in dentistry and surgery 7.2.2 Emulsification for removal of tissue 7.2.3 Ultrasonic thrombolysis for the removal of blood clots 7.2.4 Synthesis of microcapsules for drug delivery 7.3 High-frequency ultrasound 1–5 MHz 7.3.1 Non-therapeutic applications of high-frequency ultrasound 7.3.1.1 Diagnostic ultrasound 7.3.1.2 Separations using standing waves 7.3.2 Therapeutic applications of high-frequency ultrasound 7.3.2.1 Physiotherapy 7.3.2.2 The healing of fractured or damaged bone 7.3.2.3 Sonodynamic therapy 7.3.2.4 Sonophoresis and sonoporation 7.3.2.4.1 Sonophoresis 7.3.2.4.2 Sonoporation 7.3.2.5 Focused ultrasound 7.4 The Sonochemistry Centre and therapeutic ultrasound 7.4.1 Conferences involving sonochemistry and therapeutic medicine 7.4.2 Dentistry 7.4.3 Transdermal drug delivery and enhanced cell permeability 7.4.3.1 Transdermal drug delivery 7.4.3.2 Enhanced cell permeability 7.4.3.3 Sonodynamic therapy 7.4.4 The links between HIFU in Chongqing and the Sonochemistry Centre in Coventry 7.4.4.1 Technoform Sonics and HIFU 7.4.4.2 Zhao Yiyun and the first links with medical ultrasound in China 7.4.4.3 Chongqing and HIFU research in China 7.4.4.4 Making the link between Chongqing HAIFU, Technoform Sonics and the Churchill Hospital in Oxford 7.4.4.5 The International Society for Therapeutic Ultrasound 7.4.4.6 Two later conferences held in Chongqing 7.4.4.7 HIFU treatment of uterine fibroids 7.4.5 Microcapsules for targeted drug delivery 7.4.5.1 Polyelectrolyte capsules 7.4.5.2 Magnetic polyelectrolyte capsules 7.4.6 Research collaboration with Wu Wei 7.4.6.1 Ultrasonic amplification of biomarkers for ovarian cancer 7.4.6.2 Ultrasonic stimulation of the brain as a potential treatment for Parkinson’s disease 7.5 Concluding remarks References 8. Power ultrasound in food technology 8.1 Historical introduction 8.1.1 Mechanical effects of ultrasound 8.1.1.1 Crystallization and freezing 8.1.1.2 Heat transfer 8.1.1.3 Cutting 8.1.1.4 Degassing 8.1.1.5 Foam control 8.1.1.6 Drying 8.1.1.7 Emulsification and homogenization 8.1.1.8 Extraction of flavourings and colours 8.1.1.9 Filtration 8.1.1.10 Hydrogenation of oils 8.1.1.11 Meat processing 8.1.1.11.1 Processed meat products 8.1.1.11.2 Brining 8.1.1.11.3 Thawing 8.1.2 Chemical and biological effects of ultrasound 8.1.2.1 Bactericidal action of ultrasound and sterilization 8.1.2.2 Cell activity stimulation 8.1.2.3 Enzyme modification 8.1.2.4 Oxidation and the ageing (maturation) of alcoholic beverages 8.1.2.5 Protein denaturation and the depolymerization of starch 8.2 Food technology at Coventry: links with industry 8.2.1 Leatherhead Food Research Association (LFRA) 8.2.1.1 Meat tenderization 8.2.1.2 Inactivation of enzymes 8.2.1.3 Improved freezing 8.2.2 Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association (CCFRA) 8.2.2.1 Thermosonication 8.2.2.2 Heat transfer 8.2.2.3 The cleaning of fresh vegetables 8.2.2.4 Meat processing 8.2.3 Mars Foods 8.2.3.1 Caramel production 8.2.3.2 The release of cocoa butter from cocoa 8.2.4 Unilever 8.2.4.1 Crystallization of oils and fats 8.2.5 Kraft Foods 8.2.5.1 Effect on rice grains 8.2.5.2 Fermentation of yeast 8.3 Ultrasound and food technology at Coventry: academic links 8.3.1 1996 food conference and the book Ultrasound in food processing 8.3.2 Review articles from the Coventry group 8.3.2.1 General reviews on food technology 8.3.2.2 Uses of airborne ultrasound 8.3.2.3 The processing of liquid foods sterilization and enzyme inactivation 8.3.2.4 Fermentation processes 8.3.3 International collaboration via research exchanges with other university groups 8.3.3.1 Collaboration with Zagreb University, Croatia 8.3.3.1.1 Effect of ultrasound on the properties of whey and soy proteins 8.3.3.1.2 Enhanced drying of vegetables 8.3.3.2 Collaboration with University of Chihuahua 8.4 Food research in Romania 8.4.1 Sonicated champagne research project 8.4.2 Extraction of natural sweeteners from Stevia 8.5 Concluding remarks References 9. Textile and leather processing 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Production processes in the textile industry 9.2.1 Fibre production 9.2.2 Yarn production 9.2.3 Fabric production 9.3 Fabric treatment 9.3.1 Washing 9.3.2 Scouring 9.3.3 Carbonizing 9.3.4 Sizing 9.3.5 Desizing 9.3.6 Mercerization 9.3.7 Bleaching 9.3.8 The use of enzymes 9.4 Final treatment of fabrics 9.4.1 Dyeing 9.4.2 Biocidal treatment 9.5 Sonochemical production of antimicrobial fabrics 9.5.1 The SONO project for antimicrobial fabrics 9.5.2 Mechanism for the production of metal oxide nanoparticles in the SONO process 9.5.3 Impregnation of metal oxide nanoparticles into the fabric in the SONO process 9.5.4 The pilot plant installations 9.5.5 Biocidal efficiency of the treated fabrics 9.6 Developments in the impregnation of fabrics with biocidal nanoparticles after the SONO project 9.6.1 Modification of the Viatech system 9.6.2 Developments in Coventry 9.6.3 Developments in Bucharest 9.7 Production processes in the leather industry 9.7.1 Historical 9.7.2 Production processes in the leather industry 9.7.3 Leather processing in Coventry 9.8 Further developments in leather processing 9.8.1 Developments in tanning 9.8.2 Developments in dyeing 9.9 Leather processing in Bucharest 9.10 Concluding remarks References 10. Ultrasonically assisted biodiesel synthesis 10.1 An introduction to biofuels 10.1.1 First-generation biofuels 10.1.2 Second-generation biofuels 10.1.3 Third-generation biofuels 10.2 A general introduction to diesel fuel 10.3 The history of biodiesel 10.3.1 The first synthetic biodiesel fuel 10.3.2 The first reference to the chemical transesterification of a glyceride 10.4 Ultrasonically assisted biodiesel synthesis (UABS) 10.4.1 The chemistry involved in UABS 10.4.2 Ultrasonically induced oil and methanol emulsification 10.5 The work of Mircea Vinatoru (MV) on Ultrasonically Assisted Biodiesel Synthesis (UABS) 10.5.1 MV and UABS – Japan 10.5.2 MV and UABS – Romania (Part 1) 10.5.3 MV and UABS – Canada 10.5.4 MV and UABS – Texas 10.5.4.1 The use of calcium oxide (suspended in methanol) as catalyst 10.5.4.2 Development of a dual-feed ultrasonic reactor 10.5.4.3 Use of a dual-frequency reactor 10.5.4.4 Using a refrigerant fluid as solvent in the transesterification process 10.5.4.5 Reactor based on colliding ultrasonic sprays 10.5.4.6 The end of my time in Texas 10.5.5 MV and UABS – Romania (Part 2) 10.5.5.1 New system incorporating a “clamp-on” transducer 10.5.5.2 Flow reactor involving a probe system 10.5.5.3 Transesterification using a hydrodynamic system 10.5.5.4 Transesterification using a microwave reactor 10.5.5.5 A comparison of the laboratory methods for transesterification 10.5.5.6 A hybrid microwave and ultrasound reactor for biofuel synthesis 10.5.5.7 Biofuel from algae 10.5.5.8 The synthesis and uses of fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) 10.6 Some comments on the scale-up of UABS for use as an agricultural fuel 10.7 Some comments on UABS production References Index