Sonochemistry. Volume 1: Fundamentals and Evolution

Description

In the 1980’s sonochemistry was considered to be a rather restricted branch of chemistry mainly involving the ways in which ultrasound could improve synthetic procedures, predominantly in heterogeneous systems and particularly for organometallic reactions. This volume traces the evolution of sonochemistry from a century ago when the effects of acoustic cavitation were first reported almost as a scientific curiosity, through the 1980’s to the present. It describes the ways in which scientific interest grew rapidly during the 1990’s with the formation of the European Society of Sonochemistry in 1990 and the launch of a new journal Ultrasonics Sonochemistry in 1994. It also includes two chapters relating to the evolution of the subject as seen through the particular experiences of the authors Tim Mason and Mircea Vinatoru, both pioneers of sonochemistry. One chapter is devoted to the ultrasonically assisted extraction (UAE) of chemicals from plant material. This also illustrates the different ways in which sonochemical technologies can be applied in both batch and flow systems leading to the development of large-scale processing. The other chapter relating to environmental protection shows the wide range of applications of sonochemistry in this important field for both biological and chemical decontamination. Cover Half Title Also of Interest Sonochemistry. Volume 1: Fundamentals and Evolution Copyright Preface for Volume 1 Contents 1. Historical introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Sound waves and some basic elements of acoustics 1.3 A note on the physiology of hearing 1.4 Cavitation – some background information 1.5 Sonochemistry – the first uses of the term 1.6 Sonochemistry: some personal reflections from Tim Mason 1.6.1 The beginnings of sonochemistry in Coventry 1.6.2 The first international meeting on sonochemistry 1.6.3 Textbooks produced by the Coventry Sonochemistry Group 1.7 The development of sonochemistry 1.7.1 The European Society of Sonochemistry 1.7.2 Meetings and conferences of importance to the development of sonochemistry 1.7.2.1 Meeting in the UK 1.7.2.2 Meeting in France 1.7.2.3 Meetings in Belgium 1.7.2.4 Meetings in Germany 1.7.2.5 Meetings in the USA 1.7.3 International conference series involving sonochemistry 1.7.3.1 International Congress on Acoustics (ICA) 1.7.3.2 International Congress on Ultrasonics (ICU) 1.8 European Union research programmes involving sonochemistry 1.8.1 European research programmes 1.8.1.1 COST D6 (1992–1998) 1.8.1.2 COST D10 (1998–2004) 1.8.1.3 COST D32 (2004–2009) 1.8.2 European research projects to support Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union (1997–2001) 1.8.3 European Framework Programmes (2005–2013) 1.9 Origins of the journal Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 1.10 The Sonochemistry Centre at Coventry University 1.10.1 Sonochemistry in Coventry University after closure of the Sonochemistry Centre in 2015 1.11 Sonochemistry some personal reflections from Mircea Vinatoru 1.11.1 EU COPERNICUS and COST D10 programmes involving ultrasonic extraction from renewable natural resources 1.11.2 The “ordering effects” mechanism in sonochemistry 1.11.3 Work in Japan 1.11.4 Work in Canada (2001 and 2005) 1.11.5 Work in Texas (2007–2009) 1.11.6 Work in the Coventry Sonochemistry Group (2009–2015) 1.11.7 Return to Romania and ULTRAMINT 1.12 Some comments on the links between sonochemistry and nuclear fusion 1.12.1 Energy derived from nuclear fusion 1.12.2 Cold fusion 1.12.3 The film Chain Reaction 1.12.4 Nuclear fusion in a cavitation bubble 1.13 Concluding remarks References 2. Fundamental aspects of sonochemistry 2.1 Introduction to acoustic waves 2.2 Acoustic waves and their propagation 2.3 Ultrasound parameters: velocity, wavelength and frequency 2.4 Sound attenuation 2.5 Ultrasound power measurements and dosimetry 2.6 The importance of power distribution and power density 2.7 Sonochemistry reaction conditions and scale-up 2.7.1 Scaling up; a note of caution about computer optimization 2.7.2 Continuous and loop reactors 2.7.2.1 How to calculate the true ultrasonic exposure time for a loop system 2.8 Bubble collapse 2.8.1 Symmetric collapse of cavitation bubbles 2.8.2 Asymmetric collapse of cavitation bubbles 2.8.3 Some comments about sonoluminescence 2.9 Concluding remarks References 3. Ultrasonically assisted extraction (UAE) 3.1 Introduction to the extraction of natural medicinal compounds 3.2 A brief history of medicinal plants 3.2.1 Notes on the Romanian Pharmacopoeia 3.2.2 Some information about allelopathy 3.3 Classical extraction procedures for vegetal materials 3.3.1 Distillation 3.3.2 Solvent extraction 3.3.2.1 Percolation 3.3.2.2 Maceration 3.3.2.3 Infusion 3.3.2.4 Enfleurage 3.3.2.5 Cold expression (pressing) 3.4 Non-conventional extraction procedures (excluding UAE) 3.4.1 Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) 3.4.2 Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) 3.4.3 Pulsed-electric field extraction (PEF) 3.4.4 Enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) 3.4.5 Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) 3.5 The origins of ultrasonically assisted extraction (UAE) 3.6 The development of UAE from the 1990s in Coventry and Bucharest 3.6.1 UAE research projects supported by the European Union 3.6.1.1 COPERNICUS 3.6.1.2 COST D10 (SAFE) 3.6.2 Programmes supported by the UK 3.6.2.1 Maximizing the extraction of oils and alkaloids from herb species using ultrasonics (HERBSONICS) 3.6.2.2 Potential for extracting high concentrations of antioxidants from rosemary (RAPFI) 3.6.2.3 Rosemary and the supply chain to end users (RADSC) 3.6.2.3.1 UAE of the residue after CO2 extraction at Botanix 3.6.3 UAE applied to the valorization (increasing the value) of edible oils 3.6.4 UAE and links with non-classical extraction procedures 3.6.4.1 Extraction with CO2 3.6.4.2 Extraction with low-boiling fluorocarbon solvents 3.7 Some important parameters to consider in UAE 3.7.1 Swelling index (SI) 3.7.2 Extractive value – EV 3.8 The way in which UAE works with associated mechanisms 3.9 Practical aspects of UAE 3 9.1 Some guidance for good practice in UAE 3.9.2 Laboratory equipment for UAE 3.9.2.1 The ultrasonic cleaning bath 3.9.2.2 The ultrasonic probe system 3.9.3 Larger scale systems for UAE 3.9.3.1 Batch systems 3.9.3.2 Flow loop systems 3.10 Concluding remarks References 4. Environmental protection 4.1 Historical introduction 4.1.1 Biological effects of ultrasound 4.1.1.1 The disinfection of water using ultrasound 4.1.1.2 Beneficial effects of ultrasound on living cells 4.1.2 Chemical effects of ultrasound 4.1.2.1 The removal of chemical contamination using ultrasound 4.2 Studies in Coventry 4.2.1 Water disinfection with chlorine 4.2.2 Cryptosporidium 4.2.3 Report from the Foundation for Water Research 4.3 Environmental protection – microbiology 4.3.1 INCO-COPERNICUS project 1999–2001 4.3.2 Flow systems for the treatment of suspensions of bacteria 4.3.2.1 The Sonoxide system 4.3.2.2 The Martin Walter push–pull system 4.3.2.3 Flow treatment of Bacillus subtilis suspensions 4.3.3 Ultrasound treatment of bacteria in conjunction with other methods 4.3.3.1 Ultrasound with a bactericide 4.3.3.2 Ultrasound with electrolysis 4.3.3.3 Ultrasound with UV 4.3.3.4 Ultrasound with ozone 4.3.4 Ultrasound for the control of algae 4.3.4.1 Links with Cranfield University 4.3.4.2 Algae control and links with China 4.3.4.3 The Carbon Trust 4.3.4.4 The acoustics associated with disruption of algal cells 4.4 Environmental protection – chemical 4.4.1 Sonoelectrochemical methods 4.4.1.1 Removal of metal ions 4.4.1.2 Removal of textile dyes 4.4.1.3 Sonoelectrocatalytic treatment 4.4.2 Removal of volatile and non-volatile pollutants 4.4.3 Removal of endocrine disruptor chemicals (EDCS) 4.4.4 Removal of dyes 4.4.4.1 Ultrasound alone 4.4.4.2 Ultrasound with Fenton type reagents 4.4.5 Decontamination of soil 4.5 Large-scale low-frequency sound 4.5.1 Low-frequency sound plus ozone for dye destruction 4.5.2 Low-frequency sound for soil remediation 4.5.3 Hydration (slaking) of ash waste from fluidized bed combustors (FBC) 4.6 Environmental involvement of Mircea (in Japan and Romania) 4.6.1 Dioxin degradation 4.6.2 Chlorobenzene decomposition using Fenton-type aqueous systems 4.6.3 Removal of heavy metals with alginate beads References Index