Automating Crime Prevention, Surveillance, and Military Operations

Description

This interdisciplinary volume critically explores how the ever-increasing use of automated systems is changing policing, criminal justice systems, and military operations at the national and international level. The book examines the ways in which automated systems are beneficial to society, while addressing the risks they represent for human rights. This book starts with a historical overview of how different types of knowledge have transformed crime control and the security domain, comparing those epistemological shifts with the current shift caused by knowledge produced with high-tech information technology tools such as big data analytics, machine learning, and artificial intelligence. The first part explores the use of automated systems, such as predictive policing and platform policing, in law enforcement. The second part analyzes the use of automated systems, such as algorithms used in sentencing and parole decisions, in courts of law. The third part examines the use and misuse of automated systems for surveillance and social control. The fourth part discusses the use of lethal (semi)autonomous weapons systems in armed conflicts. An essential read for researchers, politicians, and advocates interested in the use and potential misuse of automated systems in crime control, this diverse volume draws expertise from such fields as criminology, law, sociology, philosophy, and anthropology. Acknowledgments Contents About the Contributors Contributors Chapter 1: Automation, Knowledge, and Power: How Does Automation Change Social Control and the Balance of Power? 1 Introduction 2 Knowledge Production as a Battlefield: On the Antecedents of Automation in Social Control 3 Automation in Crime Control: How Is the New “Data Science” Changing Crime Control? 4 Automation and Elections: How Does Automation Change Political Power? “Traditional” Gerrymandering Rucho v. Common Cause What About Proportional Systems? “Digital” Gerrymandering and Microtargeting The Marketplace-of-Ideas Argument Stricter Legislation Argument Interim Conclusion 5 Conclusion References Part I: Automating Policing Chapter 2: Discrimination in Predictive Policing: The (Dangerous) Myth of Impartiality and the Need for STS Analysis 1 Introduction 2 Predictive Policing: A Socio-Technical Assemblage 3 Discrimination and Bias in Place-Based Predictive Policing Skewed Data, Biased Predictions Discriminatory Policing Due to Crime Predictions More Attentive Policing in Predicted Risk Areas Amplified Discriminatory Profiling Discrimination Via Socio-Technical Circularity: Feedback Loops Tech-Washing 4 Decentering Technology: Toward Social and Data Justice 5 The Myth of Objectivity and the Need for STS Analysis 6 Conclusion References Chapter 3: The New Platform Policing 1 Introduction 2 Policing’s Platform Imaginary 3 Platform Genealogies 1: Calculation 4 Platform Genealogies 2: Temporality 5 Platform Genealogies 3: Automation 6 Totalization, Capital and Precision References Chapter 4: Information In-Formation: Algorithmic Policing and the Life of Data 1 Introduction 2 Data and Life: Towards an Analysis of Data Life Cycles 3 The Rise of Digital Data in the Context of Policing 4 Formations of Information: Data Life Cycles in Predictive Policing 5 Conclusion References Websites Chapter 5: Automating Freedom, Security and Justice: Interoperability of AFSJ Databases as a Move Towards the Indiscriminate Mass Surveillance of Third-Country Nationals 1 Introduction 2 The Birth of Interoperability in the Post-9/11 Era 3 The Cornerstones of Interoperability: The AFSJ Information Systems 4 Interoperability Components 5 Interoperability in the Light of CJEU Jurisprudence on the Right to Privacy and Data Protection 6 Conclusion References Part II: Automating Criminal Courts Chapter 6: Postulates of Criminal Law in the Age of Automated Justice: The Case of Passenger Name Records—Toward Fishing Expeditions, Generalized Suspicion, the Presumption of Guilt, and Responsibility for the Acts of Others? 1 Introducing the Problem 2 The Individual’s Autonomy at the Core of Modern Criminal Law Autonomy Autonomy and the Tenets of Substantive and Procedural Criminal Law Substantive and Procedural Law: The Point of Convergence 3 The Nature of Processing PNR Data Under the PNR Directive 4 Three Dichotomies Status Versus Actus Prevention Versus Repression (Reaction) Administrative Versus Judicial 5 In Lieu of a Conclusion: The Pitfalls References Chapter 7: Detention Decision-Making in Slovenia Using the Computerized Risk Assessment Tool Detention v1.0: Effective Use of Machine Learning Algorithms from the Perspective of the Defendant’s Procedural Rights 1 Introduction 2 Assessing the Risk of Recidivism: Slovenia Versus New Jersey From the Material Perspective From the Procedural Perspective Decision-Making 3 The Fairness of Using Detention v1.0 as a Risk Assessment Tool The Right to Obtain Human Intervention The Right of the Defendant to Obtain Information and to Express His or Her Point of View Prohibition of Discrimination and the Use of Special Categories of Personal Data The Right to Obtain an Explanation of Automated Decision-Making and an Ex Post Explanation of the Decision Reached as a Prerequisite for Challenging the Decision 4 A Way Forward References Part III: Automating Surveillance Chapter 8: Diffuse Disciplining: On the Pervasive Nature of Autonomous Systems and Its Consequences 1 Introduction 2 Disciplining Without Regard to Intent or Result 3 Disciplining Without Regard to Political or Cultural Systems 4 Controlling Design and Designing Control 5 Engaging Technology 6 Utopian Dreams 7 America 8 China 9 Ireland 10 Conclusion References Chapter 9: The Threat of Automating Control: Surveillance of Women’s Clothing in Iran 1 Introduction 2 Policing Hijab After the 1979 Revolution 3 Public Space Surveillance and Compulsory Hijab 4 Compulsory Hijab as Spatial Injustice 5 Revisiting the Concept of Spatial Justice 6 Resisting the Injustice of Compulsory Hijab 7 Conclusion References Part IV: Automating Intelligence and Military Operations Chapter 10: Project Maven, Big Data, and Ubiquitous Knowledge: The Impossible Promises and Hidden Politics of Algorithmic Security Vision 1 Introduction: Unveiling the Unseeable 2 Project Maven: Automating Drone Surveillance and Intelligence Making 3 The Datafication of Counterterrorism: Data Surveillance and Predictive Analytics 4 The Promise of Total Knowledge: The Fallacious Empiricism of Big Data 5 Algorithmic Vision, Apophenia, and the Creation of Meaning 6 Conclusion: Accuracy, Responsibility, and the Hidden Politics of Algorithmic Vision References Chapter 11: Automating the Target Selection Process: Humans, Semiautonomous Weapons Systems, and the Assault on International Humanitarian Law 1 Introduction 2 The Principle of Distinction 3 Ignoring the Principle of Distinction Targeting People Based on Their Communication Patterns Targeting People Based on Their Location and Movements Targeting People Possessing a Weapon 4 The Human-Machine Assemblage 5 Conclusion References Index