Artificial Intelligence, Social Harms and Human Rights

Description

T​his book critically explores how and to what extent artificial intelligence (AI) can infringe human rights and/or lead to socially harmful consequences and how to avoid these. The European Union has outlined how it will use big data, machine learning, and AI to tackle a number of inherently social problems, including poverty, climate change, social inequality and criminality. The contributors of this book argue that the developments in AI must take place in an appropriate legal and ethical framework and they make recommendations to ensure that harm and human rights violations are avoided. The book is split into two parts: the first addresses human rights violations and harms that may occur in relation to AI in different domains (e.g. border control, surveillance, facial recognition) and the second part offers recommendations to address these issues. It draws on interdisciplinary research and speaks to policy-makers and criminologists, sociologists, scholars in STS studies, security studies scholars and legal scholars. Preface Acknowledgements Contents Contributors Part I AI in Different Domains: AI, Repression and Crime 1 Artificial Intelligence and Sentencing from a Human Rights Perspective 1 Introduction: “The Advent of AI Sentencing” 2 Sentencing in Europe: Structural Features and Possibilities for AI Use 2.1 Sentencing in Europe 2.2 Scenarios of AI-Based Decision-Support Systems for Sentencing in Europe 3 A European Human Rights Perspective on AI-Supported Sentencing 3.1 Art. 3 ECHR: Inhuman and Degrading Treatment 3.2 Art. 6 ECHR: Fair Trial 3.3 Art. 7 ECHR: “Nullum Crimen, Nulla Poena Sine Lege” 3.4 Art. 8 ECHR: Privacy and Data Protection 3.5 Art. 14 ECHR: Discrimination 4 Discussion and Conclusion References 2 Technical and Legal Challenges of the Use of Automated Facial Recognition Technologies for Law Enforcement and Forensic Purposes 1 Introduction 2 Technical Shortcomings of FRT 3 Legal Challenges of FRT 4 Conclusion References Part II AI in Different Domains: Impacts of AI on Specific Rights 3 Artificial Intelligence, International Law and the Race for Killer Robots in Modern Warfare 1 Introduction 2 What Are Automated Weapons? 3 The Race for Killer Robots 4 The Ethical Concerns of the Use of Automated Weaponry 5 The International Legal Accountability, Responsibility, and the Usage of Drones 6 Conclusions References 4 Artificial Intelligence and the Prohibition of Discrimination in the EU: A Private Law Perspective 1 Introduction 2 Non-discrimination in EU Law: The Legal Framework 3 The Prohibition of Discrimination in Horizontal Relationships: Combating Discriminatory Practices of AI in Relationships Between Private Individuals 3.1 The Prohibition of Discrimination V. The Freedom of Contract 3.2 Employment and Occupation Matters 3.2.1 Candidate Sourcing 3.2.2 Selection Processes and Conditions for the Promotion 3.3 Access to and the Supply of Goods and Services 3.3.1 Targeted Advertising 3.3.2 Algorithmic Pricing 4 Algorithms Against Discrimination: Algorithmic Audits and Examples of Good Practice 5 Concluding Remarks References Part III Policy, Regulation, Governance: AI and Ethics 5 In Defence of Ethics and the Law in AI Governance: The Case of Computer Vision 1 Introduction 2 AI Harm: Why an Ex-ante Assessment of AI Is Needed? 3 AI Governance: Assessing the Ethical and Fundamental Rights Impacts of AI 3.1 Positive Role of Ethics 3.2 Critique of Ethics 3.3 Critique of the Law 4 A Case Study: Computer Vision and GDPR’s Exception for Research Purposes 4.1 What Is Computer Vision? 4.2 The Tensions Between Scientific Ends and the Data Subject’s Rights 4.3 Scientific Research as a Privileged Case of Personal Data Processing 5 Ethics and the Law in AI Governance Assemblage References 6 What Role for Ethics in the Law of AI? 1 Introduction 2 Ethics and Fundamental Rights 3 Artificial Ethics or Artificial Reason? 4 The Morality of Inferences 5 Conclusions: Lessons from Ethics for the Law of AI? References 7 Introduction to Computational Ethics 1 Introduction 2 Bottom-Up vs Top-Down Approaches 3 Top-Down Approaches 4 Bottom-Up Approaches 5 Computational Complexity and Computability 6 Conclusion References Part IV Policy, Regulation, Governance: AI and Harm Prevention 8 Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights: Corporate Responsibility Under International Human Rights Law 1 Introduction 2 Negative Impact of AI on Human Rights 3 General Legal Framework on Business and Human Rights 3.1 Position of Businesses Under International Human Rights Law 3.2 Corporate Human Rights Responsibility 3.2.1 Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights 4 AI, Business and Human Rights 4.1 AI and Human Rights Due Diligence 4.2 Challenges to Achieving Corporate Respect for Human Rights with Respect to AI 5 Conclusion References 9 As Above so Below: The Use of International Space Law as an Inspiration for Terrestrial AI Regulation to Maximize Harm Prevention 1 Introduction 2 AI Preventing Harm on Earth 2.1 Natural Disasters 2.2 Agriculture 2.3 Traffic 3 AI Preventing Harm in Outer Space 3.1 Space Debris Remediation 3.2 Collision Avoiding Mechanisms 3.3 Monitoring Environmental Harm Through Data Collecting 4 Development of Regulatory Framework on Earth 5 Specific Regulatory Framework Applicable in Outer Space 6 Comparison and Ways Forward 7 Conclusion Literatures 10 Democratizing the Governance of AI: From Big Tech Monopolies to Cooperatives 1 Introduction 2 Tech Companies as Monopolies 3 Socially Harmful Aspects of AI 4 Democratization of AI 4.1 Toward AI for Social Good 4.2 Cooperatives as Guidelines for a Democratized Big Tech 5 Discussion References Index