Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae, and Microorganisms: Concepts and Controversies: Volume 1

Description

Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae and Microorganisms: Concepts and Controversies: Volume One discusses the vast amount of nanomaterials that have been released into the environment in a relatively short amount of time. There is a need to understand what the implications to the health of our biota and ecosystems are as the earth is increasingly inundated with these materials. Not all of the effects are negative, but their impacts are increasing exponentially due to their size, quantity and other factors. Covers the issues of nanoparticles on more simple organisms and their ecosystemsPresents issues that are specific to terrestrial ecosystemsContains contributions from global experts who help increase understanding at the physiological, biochemical, molecular, and even genomic and proteomic levelsProvides a critical assessment of the progress taking place on this topic and sheds light on future research needs Cover Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae, and Microorganisms Copyright List of Contributors Preface 1 - Availability and Risk Assessment of Nanoparticles in Living Systems: A Virtue or a Peril 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Sources of NPs in the Environment 1.2.1 Natural Sources 1.2.1.1 Dust Storms 1.2.1.2 Terrestrial Dust Storms 1.2.1.3 Extraterrestrial Dust Storms 1.2.1.4 Forest Fires and Volcanoes 1.2.1.5 Ocean and Water Evaporation 1.2.1.6 Organisms 1.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources 1.2.2.1 Diesel and Engine Exhaust NPs 1.2.2.2 Indoor Pollution and Buildings Demolition 1.2.2.3 Cosmetics and Other Consumer Products 1.2.2.4 Engineered Nanomaterials 1.3 Global Extension and Economic Impacts of Natural and Engineered NPs 1.4 Forecasting the Potential Risk Associated With NPs 1.5 NP Toxicities in Microorganisms, Plants, and Humans 1.5.1 Effects of NPs on Microorganisms 1.5.2 Effects of NPs on Plants 1.5.3 Effects of NPs on Humans 1.6 Environmental Fate of NPs 1.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspective Further Reading 2 - Plant-Based Synthesis of Nanoparticles and Their Impact 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Plant-Mediated Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles 2.3 Gold Nanoparticle Synthesis Using Plants 2.4 Plant-Assisted Synthesis of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles 2.5 Other Nanoparticles Synthesized Using Plant Sources 2.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects Acknowledgments Further Reading 3 - Potential of Spectroscopic Techniques in the Characterization of “Green Nanomaterials” 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Overview of Methods for Synthesis of Nanoparticles 3.3 Source for Green Synthesis of Nanomaterials 3.3.1 Synthesis of Nanomaterial From Plants 3.3.2 Synthesis of Nanomaterial From Algae 3.3.3 Synthesis of Nanomaterial From Fungi 3.3.4 Synthesis of Nanomaterial From Bacteria 3.4 Factors Governing Synthesis of Green Nanoparticles and Their Analysis 3.4.1 Technique for Particle Synthesis 3.4.2 pH Effect on Aggregation of Nanoparticles 3.4.3 Temperature 3.4.4 Pressure 3.4.5 Stabilizing Agent 3.4.6 Particle Size Distribution/Surface Area 3.4.7 Particle Proximity Effect 3.4.8 Other Factors 3.5 Overview of Spectroscopic Techniques Applicable to Nanoparticle Analysis 3.5.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 3.5.2 Raman Spectroscopy 3.5.3 X-Ray Diffraction 3.5.4 Circular Dichroism 3.5.5 Mass Spectroscopy 3.5.6 Visible (UV-Vis) Spectroscopy 3.5.7 Dynamic Light Scattering 3.6 Summary References 4 - DNA in Nanotechnology: Approaches and Developments 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Synthesis of DNA Nanostructures 4.3 Characterization 4.4 Correction of Sequence Mismatch 4.5 DNA Nanostructures in Biological Applications 4.6 Drug Delivery Applications 4.7 DNA Nanotechnology in Cancer 4.8 Role in Solving Mathematical Problems 4.9 Biosensors 4.10 Technical Challenges 4.11 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References 5 - Plant Response to Engineered Nanoparticles 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Size is Not the Only Criterion 5.3 Method of Application and Entry of Nanoparticles Into Plants 5.4 Biotransformation of Nanoparticles in Plants 5.5 Effects of Nanoparticles 5.5.1 On Legume–Rhizobium Symbiosis 5.5.2 On Growth 5.5.3 On Metabolites 5.5.4 On Different Enzymes 5.6 Effect on Abiotic and Biotic Stress 5.7 Effects of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 5.8 Nanobiotechnology 5.9 Practical Possibilities and the Way Forward References 6 - Nanoparticle-Induced Morphological Responses of Roots and Shoots of Plants 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Functions of Roots and Shoots 6.1.2 Environmental Conditions Alter the Model of Biomass Allocation Between Shoots and Roots 6.2 Effects of Diverse Nanoparticles on Growth and Development of Plants 6.2.1 Rare Earth Oxide Nanoparticles 6.2.2 Nanoparticles of Silicon Dioxide 6.2.3 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles 6.2.4 Manganese Oxide Nanoparticles 6.2.5 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 6.2.6 Carbon Nanotubes 6.2.7 Gold Nanoparticles 6.2.8 Silver Nanoparticles 6.2.9 Nanoaluminum 6.2.10 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles 6.2.11 Copper Nanoparticles References 7 - Recent Progress of Nanotoxicology in Plants 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Role of Nanoparticles in Agriculture 7.3 Types and Characteristics of Toxic Nanoparticles 7.3.1 Carbon-Based Nanoparticles 7.3.1.1 Carbon Nanotubes 7.3.1.2 Fullerene 7.3.2 Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 7.3.3 Rare Earth Oxide Nanoparticles 7.3.4 Quantum Dots (Artificial Atoms) 7.4 Factors Affecting Phytotoxicity of Nanoparticles 7.4.1 Physicochemical Characteristics of Nanoparticles 7.4.1.1 Size and Surface Properties 7.4.1.2 Dissolution 7.4.1.3 Concentration of Nanoparticles 7.4.2 Effect of Soil-Type and Environmental Factors 7.5 Phytotoxic Effects of Nanoparticles 7.5.1 Reduced Seed Germination 7.5.2 Effect on Morphology and Plant Growth 7.5.3 Effect on Quality and Grain Yield 7.6 Phytotoxic Mechanism of Nanoparticles 7.6.1 Uptake, Accumulation, and Translocation of Nanoparticles in Plants 7.6.1.1 Pathways of Internalization of Nanoparticles 7.6.1.1.1 Examples 7.6.1.1.2 Examples 7.6.1.2 Foliar Application 7.6.1.3 Factors Affecting Uptake 7.6.2 Alteration of Mineral Absorption and Assimilation and Biotransformation of Nanoparticles in Plant Cells 7.6.2.1 Alteration in Mineral Uptake and Assimilation 7.6.2.1.1 Examples 7.6.2.2 Biotransformation of Nanoparticles 7.6.3 Genotoxicity of Nanoparticles 7.6.3.1 Aluminum Oxide Nanoparticles 7.6.3.2 Copper Nanoparticles 7.6.3.3 Other Nanoparticles 7.6.4 Increase in Reactive Oxygen Species 7.6.4.1 Factors 7.6.4.2 Interaction of Reactive Oxygen Species with Nanoparticles 7.6.4.3 Effect of Reactive Oxygen Species 7.6.4.3.1 Examples 7.6.5 Reduction in Antioxidative Enzymes 7.7 Detoxification of Nanoparticles in Plants 7.7.1 Antioxidant Defense Mechanism 7.7.2 Root Exudate Detoxification of Nanoparticles 7.7.2.1 Amino Acids 7.7.2.2 Organic Acids 7.7.2.3 Phenolic Compounds References Further Reading 8 - Exploring Plant-Mediated Copper, Iron, Titanium, and Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Impacts 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Plant-Mediated Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles and Their Impact on Plants and Other Living Systems 8.3 Plant-Mediated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Impact on Plants and Other Living Systems 8.4 Plant-Mediated Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Impacts on Plants and Other Living Systems 8.5 Exploring Plant-Mediated Copper Nanoparticles and Their Impacts on Plants and Other Living Systems 8.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects Acknowledgment References Further Reading 9 - Gold Nanomaterials to Plants: Impact of Bioavailability, Particle Size, and Surface Coating 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Gold Nanomaterials: Types and Properties 9.1.1.1 Gold Nanospheres 9.1.1.2 Gold Nanorods 9.1.1.3 Gold Nanoshells 9.1.1.4 Gold Nanocages 9.1.2 Gold Nanostructures: Applications in Plants 9.2 Uptake and Translocation of Nanostructures in Plants 9.2.1 Bioavailability and Uptake 9.2.1.1 Through Roots 9.2.1.2 Through Foliar Uptake 9.2.1.3 Through Endocytosis 9.2.2 Transmission and Translocation 9.3 Effect of Gold Nanostructures on Plants 9.3.1 Impact of Surface Coating 9.3.2 Impact of Size 9.4 Toxicity Assessment of Gold Nanomaterials on Plants 9.4.1 Toxicity 9.4.2 Mechanism 9.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects Acknowledgment Further Reading 10 - Responses of Plants to Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Composition and Characterization of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 10.2.1 Magnetite 10.2.2 Hematite 10.2.3 Maghemite 10.3 Synthesis of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 10.3.1 Surface Modifications With Organic and Inorganic Materials 10.3.2 Biosynthesis of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 10.3.3 Emulsification of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 10.3.4 Sol–Gel Reactions 10.3.5 Sonolysis 10.4 Application Methods of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 10.5 Uptake, Absorbance, Transfer, and Accumulation Mechanism of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 10.6 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and Plant Growth 10.6.1 Privileged Growth and Yield of Plants 10.6.2 Improvement in Physiological Mechanism of Plants 10.6.3 Tolerance Against Abiotic Stresses 10.6.3.1 Drought Stress 10.6.3.2 Salt Stress 10.6.3.3 Temperature Stress 10.6.4 Endorsement of Agronomic Traits 10.6.5 Substitutes of Typical Fertilizers 10.6.6 Environmental Impacts 10.7 Controversies About the Phytotoxicity of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles References 11 - Effects of Rare Earth Oxide Nanoparticles on Plants 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Geological Occurrence and Sources of REONPs 11.2.1 Occurrence 11.2.2 Sources of REONPs 11.2.2.1 Natural Sources 11.2.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources 11.3 Characterization, Types, and Synthesis of REONPs 11.3.1 Characterization of REONPs 11.3.2 Types of REONPs 11.3.3 Methods to Prepare REONPs 11.4 Application of REONPs in Soil 11.4.1 Solubility of REONPs in Soil 11.4.2 Interaction of REONPs With Inorganic Components of Soil 11.4.3 Effect of REONPs on Soil Microorganisms 11.4.4 Interaction With Other Mineral Elements 11.5 Dynamics of REONPs in Soils and Plants 11.5.1 Uptake of REONPs 11.5.2 Transport of REONPs in Plant Parts 11.5.2.1 REONPs–Plant Root Interaction and Its Regulation 11.5.2.2 Processes at Root Level 11.5.2.3 Processes at Cellular Level 11.5.2.4 Transport of Root REONPs to Leaves and Edible Plant Parts 11.5.3 Accumulation of REONPs in Plant Organs 11.6 Effect of REONPs on Plant Growth 11.6.1 Effect on Seed Germination 11.6.2 Enhanced Mineral Nutrient Availability in Soil to Plants 11.6.3 Effect of REONPs on Root Growth and Development 11.6.4 Impact of REONPs on Physiological and Biochemical Parameters of Plants 11.6.4.1 Effect on Photosynthesis 11.6.4.2 Oxidative Activity 11.6.4.3 Effect of Enzyme Activity 11.6.4.4 Chlorophyll Contents 11.6.5 Impact of REONPs on Plant Productivity 11.6.6 Seed Quality Enhancement 11.7 Controversies About the Use of REONPs 11.7.1 Health Issues Related to the Use of REONPs 11.7.2 Effects of Lungs 11.7.3 Effects on Intestines 11.7.4 Effects on the Central Nervous System 11.7.5 Agricultural Issues Related to the Use of REONPs 11.7.6 Environmental Issues Related to the Use of REONPs 11.7.7 Socioeconomic Issues Related to the Use of REONPs 11.8 Prospects of REONPs 11.8.1 Prospects of REONPs in Food and Agriculture 11.8.2 Wastewater Treatment 11.8.3 Potential for Cancer and Other Diseases 11.9 Summary/Conclusions References Further Reading 12 - Influence of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles (nTiO2) on Crop Plants: A Systematic Overview 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Influence of nTiO2 on Plant Growth 12.2.1 Germination and Root Elongation 12.2.2 Adult Plants 12.2.3 Life Cycle Studies 12.3 Future Research 12.4 Conclusions References 13 - Interaction of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles With Plants: Uptake, Accumulation, and Toxicity 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Uptake Translocation and Accumulation 13.3 Effect of CuO NPs on Plants 13.4 Toxicity 13.5 Tolerance Mechanism in Plants 13.6 Conclusion and Future Remarks References 14 - Impacts of Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles (nCeO2) on Crop Plants: A Concentric Overview 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Influence of nCeO2 on Plant Growth 14.2.1 Effect on Germination and Root Elongation 14.2.2 Adult Plant Studies 14.2.3 Crop Yield Quality 14.2.4 Multigenerational Studies 14.3 Concluding Remarks References 15 - Plant and Nanoparticle Interface at the Molecular Level: An Integrated Overview 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Uptake and Translocation of NPs in Plants 15.2.1 Leaf 15.2.2 Roots 15.3 Effects of Nanoparticles on Plants 15.4 Mechanism of Phytotoxicity in Plants Generated by NPs 15.5 Effect of NPs on Genomics 15.6 Effect of NPs on Transcriptomics 15.7 Effect of NPs on Proteomics 15.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Further Reading 16 - Nanotechnology in Crop Protection 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Nanotechnology and Plant Growth 16.3 Nanotechnology in Crop Protection 16.3.1 Encapsulated Nanosystems for Crop Protection 16.3.1.1 Biopolymers 16.3.1.2 Synthetic Polymer 16.3.1.3 Polymeric-Based Nanomaterials for Crop Protection 16.3.1.3.1 Nanocapsule 16.3.1.3.2 Nanosphere 16.3.1.3.3 Micelle 16.3.1.3.4 Nanogels 16.3.1.4 Lipid-Based Nanomaterials for Crop Protection 16.3.1.5 Inorganic Porous Nanomaterials for Crop Protection 16.3.1.6 Clay-Based Nanomaterials for Crop Protection 16.3.2 Nonencapsulated Nanopesticide for Crop Protection 16.3.2.1 Silver Nanoparticles 16.3.2.2 ZnO Nanoparticles 16.3.2.3 Silica Nanoparticles 16.3.2.4 Copper Nanoparticles 16.3.2. 5TiO2 Nanoparticles 16.3.2.6 MgO Nanoparticles 16.3.3 Other Nano-Based Systems for Crop Protection 16.3.3.1 Nanocomposites 16.3.4 Mode of Entry of Nanomaterials in Plants and Controlled Release of Agrochemicals 16.3.4.1 Ultrasound Responsive Polymers 16.3.4.2 Light Responsive Polymers 16.3.4.3 Redox/Thiol Responsive Polymers 16.3.4.4 Magnetic Field Responsive Polymers 16.3.4.5 Enzyme Responsive Polymers 16.3.4.6 Antigen–Antibody Responsive Polymers 16.3.4.7 Electric Field Responsive Polymers 16.3.4.8 pH and Temperature Responsive Polymers 16.4 Nanotechnology in Soil and Water Management 16.5 Nanotechnology in Plant Breeding and Genetic Transformation 16.5.1 Liposome-Mediated Gene Transfer 16.5.2 Modified or Neoliposomal Technique 16.5.3 Nanoparticle-Mediated Gene Transfer 16.5.4 Carbon Nanotube-Mediated Gene Transfer 16.5.5 Lipofectin 16.5.6 Other Novel Nanomaterial-Based Gene Transfer Processes 16.6 Nano-Based Diagnostic Sensors 16.7 Limitation of Nanomaterials 16.8 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Further Reading 17 - Impact of Nanoparticles on Oxidative Stress and Responsive Antioxidative Defense in Plants 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Nanoparticle-Induced Oxidative Stress in Plants: Generation of ROS 17.3 Oxidative Damage Caused by Generated ROS 17.4 Activation of Antioxidant Machinery in Response to Nanoparticle Exposure 17.5 Conclusion and Future Outlook Acknowledgments References Further Reading 18 - Nanoparticles and Organic Matter: Process and Impact 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Plant Components: Nature and Uses 18.2.1 Carbohydrates 18.2.2 Proteins and Amino Acids 18.2.3 Lignins 18.2.4 Lipids 18.3 Complications in Organic Matter Conversion 18.3.1 Structural Complexity 18.3.2 Crystallinity: Amorphous Modulation 18.3.3 Depolymerization 18.3.4 Economic Implications 18.3.5 Water–Wastewater Prospects 18.3.6 By-Product Utilization 18.4 Nanomaterials: A New Candidate in Organic Matter Conversion 18.5 Characteristics of Nanomaterials 18.5.1 Size 18.5.2 Shape 18.5.3 Porosity 18.5.4 Surface Polarity 18.5.5 Surface Composition 18.6 Functional Properties of Nanocatalysts for Biomass Conversion 18.6.1 Specificity 18.6.2 Reactivity 18.6.3 Durability 18.6.4 Easy Recovery 18.7 Nanoparticles: Components Determining the Functional Properties 18.7.1 Acid Nanocatalyst 18.7.2 Base Nanocatalyst 18.7.3 Bifunctional Catalyst 18.7.4 Metal Oxides 18.7.5 Mixed Nanometal Oxides 18.7.6 Surface-Activated Metal Nanoparticles 18.8 Nanoparticles on Organic Matter 18.8.1 Protein Extraction 18.8.2 Fractionation of Carbohydrates 18.8.3 Production of Value-Added Products From Carbohydrates 18.8.4 Catalytic Pyrolysis of Lignin 18.8.5 Extraction of Lipids 18.8.6 Transesterification of Lipids 18.9 Further Perspectives and Conclusions Acknowledgments References 19 - Ecological Risks of Nanoparticles: Effect on Soil Microorganisms 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Effect of Nanoparticles on Microorganisms 19.3 Physical Basis of Toxicity 19.3.1 Size of the Nanoparticle 19.3.2 Shape of the Nanoparticle 19.3.2.1 Composition of the Nanoparticle 19.4 Biochemical Mechanisms of Nanoparticle-Induced Toxicity 19.4.1 Release of Toxic Metal Ions and Subsequent Interaction 19.4.2 Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Depletion 19.4.3 Enzyme Activity Interference 19.4.4 Impairment of Membrane Function 19.4.5 Interference With Nutrient Assimilation 19.4.6 Genotoxicity or DNA Damage 19.4.7 Reactive Oxygen Species Generation 19.4.8 Interactions With Proteins 19.4.9 Lipid Peroxidation 19.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives References Further Reading 20 - Application of Nanotechnology to Enhance the Nutrient Quality of Food Crops and Agricultural Production 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Nanobiotechnological Materials and Their Synthesis 20.3 Application of Nanobiotechnology at the Production Site (Agricultural Sector) 20.3.1 Maintenance of Plant and Other Food Crops 20.3.2 Protection From Pathogens 20.3.3 As a Nanonutrient to Maintain Nutrient Quality of Food Crops 20.3.4 As a Nanofertilizer 20.3.5 As a Genetic Tool 20.4 Applications of Nanobiotechnology at the Marketing Site (Food Sector) 20.4.1 Nanoemulsions 20.4.2 Nanosensors 20.4.3 Nanocomposites 20.4.4 For Food Packaging 20.5 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 21 - Potential Applications and Avenues of Nanotechnology in Sustainable Agriculture 21.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Global Applications of Nanomaterials 21.2 Nanotechnology for Sustainable Development of Crops 21.2.1 Nanobiosensors 21.2.2 Nanopesticides 21.2.3 Nano-Based Smart Delivery Systems: Nanoscale Carriers and Nanofertilizers 21.2.3.1 Nitrogen Fertilizers 21.2.3.2 Potash Fertilizers 21.2.3.3 Nanoporous Zeolite 21.2.3.4 Zinc Nanofertilizer 21.2.4 Nanoherbicide 21.2.5 Nanofiltration in Agriculture 21.3 Nanotechnology in Plant Nutrition and Health 21.3.1 Nanoparticles in Plant Growth Enhancement 21.3.1.1 Nanoparticles as Growth Promoter 21.3.1.2 Nanoparticles in Disease Suppression 21.3.2 Nanofoods 21.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects Acknowledgment Further Reading 22 - Nanoencapsulation of Essential Oils: A Possible Way for an Eco-Friendly Strategy to Control Postharvest Spoilage of Food Commodities From Pests 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Techniques for Essential Oil Encapsulation 22.2.1 Spray-Drying Method 22.2.2 Spray Cooling/Chilling Method 22.2.3 Liposomal Preparation 22.2.4 Coacervation/Phase Separation 22.2.5 Molecular Inclusion 22.2.6 Cocrystallization 22.2.7 Emulsification 22.2.8 Nanoprecipitation 22.2.9 Supercritical Fluid Technique 22.3 Carriers/Wall Materials for Encapsulation 22.3.1 Carbohydrate Based Materials 22.3.1.1 Starch and Starch-Based Materials 22.3.1.2 Cellulose and Its Derivatives 22.3.1.3 Plant Gums 22.3.1.4 Animal Polysaccharides 22.3.2 Protein-Based Materials 22.3.3 Lipid-Based Materials 22.3.4 Other Materials 22.4 Characterization of Micro-/Nanocapsules 22.4.1 Total and Surface Oil Determination (Encapsulation Efficiency) 22.4.2 Surface Characterization 22.4.3 Analysis of EO Composition Before and After Encapsulation 22.4.4 Release of Volatiles 22.4.5 Evaluation of Storage Stability 22.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects References Index A B C D E F G H I L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Z Back Cover