Current Issues in Descriptive Linguistics and Digital Humanities: A Festschrift in Honor of Professor Eno-Abasi Essien Urua

Description

This book is a convergence of heterogeneous insights (from languages and literature, history, music, media and communications, computer science and information studies) which previously went their separate ways; now unified under a single framework for the purpose of preserving a unique heritage, the language. In a growing society like ours, description and documentation of human and scientific evidence/resources are improving. However, these resources have enjoyed cost-effective solutions for Western languages but are yet to flourish for African tone languages. By situating discussions around a universe of discourse, sufficient to engender cross-border interactions within the African context, this book shall break a dichotomy of challenges on adaptive processes required to unify resources to assist the development of modern solutions for the African domain.  Acknowledgements Introduction Analysis of Contributions Contents Editors and Contributors Formal Linguistics 1 Cross Consonantal Vowel Assimilation in Yoruba: A Review Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Cross Consonantal Feature Assimilation 2.1 Yoruba Vowel Harmony 2.2 Feature Structure 3 Cross-Consonantal Spreading in Morpho-Syntactic Contexts 3.1 Nominalizing Prefix [Oní]/[Oni] 4 Cross-Consonantal Spreading Across dorsal and labial-dorsal 4.1 Spreading Across the dorsal Stop 4.2 Spreading Across the Voiced labial- dorsal 5 Spreading in Diminutive and Other Ideophones 5.1 Spreading in Loan Vocabulary 6 Conclusion References 2 Level-Ordered Morphology in Bētē Simple Nouns Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Theoretical Framework 3 Method 4 Genetic Classification 4.1 Geographical Location 5 Data Analysis 5.1 Bētē Simple Nouns 5.1.1 Bete Nominal Prefixes 5.1.2 The Pairings 5.2 The Ordering of Affixes in Bētē Simple Nouns 5.2.1 Derivation of Nouns (Verb \to Noun) 5.3 Class 6 Nouns 6 Conclusion References 3 Body Parts as Grammatical Markers in Fulfulde: The Case of Prepositions Abstract 1 Introduction 2 The Grammaticalization Theory 3 Analysis of Prepositions in Fulfulde 3.1 Fulfulde Body Part Terms as Prepositions 3.1.1 Ɓaawo ‘Back’ 3.1.2 Yeeso ‘Face’ 3.1.3 Hunnduko ‘Mouth’ 3.1.4 Hoore ‘Head’ 4 Conclusion References 4 Syntax of Agreement in Ekid Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 The Ekid Language 1.2 Historical Background of Esit Eket People 2 Related Works 2.1 Morphology and Syntax 2.2 Subject-Verb Agreement 2.3 Agreement and Movement in Linguistic Theory 3 Data Analysis 3.1 Single Agreement Marking 3.2 Agreement Doubling 3.3 Multiple or Complex Agreement 4 Conclusion References 5 Syntactic Analysis of Non-basic Constructions in Ékid Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Linguistic Classification of Ékd 1.2 Theoretical Framework 2 Related Works 2.1 Topicalization 2.2 Left-Dislocation 2.3 Focusing 2.3.1 Clefting 3 Data Analysis 3.1 Topicalization 3.2 Left-Dislocation 3.3 Clefting 4 Discussion 5 Conclusion References 6 Inherent Complement Verbs in Ibibio Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Ibibio ICVs and ICs 3 Ibibio ICVs and Ibibio Transitive Lexical Verbs (TLVs) 4 Ibibio ICs as Semantic Components: More Syntactic Evidence 4.1 Imperativization and Ibibio ICs 4.2 Pronominalization and Ibibio ICs 4.3 Topicalization and Ibibio ICs 4.4 Focusing and Ibibio ICs 4.5 Discourse Pronominalization and Ibibio ICs 5 Conclusion References 7 Complementation and Headedness in Ibibio Nominal Compounds Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Complement 3 Method 3.1 Study Population 3.2 Theoretical Framework 3.2.1 Operations of the MP 4 Data Analysis 4.1 The Directionality of Headedness in Ibibio Compounds 4.2 Determining Complements and Heads in Ibibio Compound 4.2.1 Endocentric Compound 4.2.2 Exocentric Compound 4.3 Analysis on Noun Plus Noun Compound Derivation 4.4 Analysis on Adjective Plus Noun Nominal Derivation 5 Conclusion References 8 A Contrastive Analysis of the Verbal Group Structures of English and Urhobo Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Theoretical Framework 1.1.1 Unit 1.1.2 Structure 1.1.3 Class 1.1.4 System 2 Data Analysis 2.1 English Verbal Group 2.2 Urhobo Verbal Group 2.3 Auxiliary Verbs 2.4 Negation in Urhobo VG 2.4.1 Negation by Suffixation in Declarative 2.4.2 Negation by Focus Marking in Declarative Sentences 2.4.3 Negation in Interrogative Sentence 2.4.4 Negation in Declarative Questions 2.4.5 Negation in Imperative Sentence 3 Discussion 4 Conclusion References 9 Verb Juxtaposition: On the Aspect of Serial Verb Construction in Ibibio Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Theoretical Framework and Study Design 2.1 Related Works 3 Data Presentation and Analysis 3.1 (SVC) in Ibibio 3.2 Classification of (SVC) in Ibibio 3.2.1 Causative SVC (CSVC) 3.2.2 Sequential SVC (SSVC) 3.2.3 Dative SVC 3.2.4 Consequential SVC 3.2.5 Negation of (SVC) in Ibibio 4 Conclusion References 10 Structgenautic Study of Isoko Tones Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Tone Systems 2 Isoko Tones 3 Tonological Processes 3.1 Tonal Segmentalisation 3.2 Tonal Assimilation 3.3 Contour Tone Formation 3.4 Contour Tone Simplification 3.5 Tonal Contraction 4 Association of Tones to the Segments 4.1 Association of Tones in Nouns – Noun Associative Constructions 5 Conclusion References 11 A Morpho-phonological Investigation of the Derivation of Numerals Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Izon Numeral 2.1 Basic Numeral 2.2 Cardinal Numeral 2.2.1 Derivation of Cardinal Numerals 3 Data Analysis 3.1 Izon as a Vigesimal Numeral Language 3.2 Linguistic Processes in the Derivation of Izọ́n Numerals 3.2.1 Compounding 3.2.2 Umlaut 3.2.3 Deletion/Elision 3.2.4 Insertion 3.2.5 Multiplication 4 Conclusion References 12 Polar Interrogative Strategies in Obolo Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Interrogatives 2.1 What is an Interrogative? 2.1.1 Polar Interrogatives 2.1.2 Non-polar Interrogatives 2.2 Polar Interrogative Strategies in Languages 3 Polar Interrogative Strategies in Obolo 3.1 Interrogative Intonation Marking 3.2 Question Particles (QPs) 3.2.1 ì rè-Type 3.2.2 ké bê -Type 3.2.3 ó-nͻ́ / ó-tét / ó-kpè bê Type 3.3 Question Tags (QTs) 3.3.1 ì rè/kébê…Tags 3.3.2 ì rè /kébê Clause Tags 3.4 Interrogative Verb Morphology 4 Findings 5 Conclusion References 13 Underlying Tone Contrast in Ogbia Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Underlying Tone Contrast 2.1 Minimal Pair Test 3 Data Analysis 3.1 Morpho-Phonological Analysis of Ogbia Tone 3.1.1 Singular/Plural Nouns 3.1.2 Noun Derivatives 3.1.3 Tone on Compounds 3.1.4 Tonal Alternations in Verb Forms 3.1.5 Verb Inflection 3.1.6 Tone on Reduplicated Forms in Ogbia 4 Conclusion References 14 A Phonological Description of Ibibio Names: The Case of “Ènọ̀-Ábàsì Èssíén Ùrùà” Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Ibibio Naming System 3 Methodology 4 Data Analysis 4.1 Phonological Description “Ènọ̀-Ábàsì Èssíén Ùrùà” 4.1.1 Segmental 4.1.2 Non-Segmental 4.2 Personal Names with Similar Structure 5 Conclusion Appendix References Riddles, Proverbs, Folktales 15 A Morphological Description of Proverbial Ígálà Personal Names Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Data Analysis 2.1 Proverbial Names as Compound Word 2.2 Proverbial Names as Complex Words 2.3 Proverbial Names as Compound-Complex Words 3 Conclusion References 16 Language, Proverbs, Power and Male Chauvinism in Anaang Society Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Proverbs and Culture 2.1 Moroccan Proverbs on Women’s Intellect (Adapted from Belfatmi, 2013) 3 Power and Gender 3.1 God, Gender and Male Chauvinism 3.2 Efforts to End Gender Inequality 4 Data Analysis 4.1 Proverbs that Condemn Women’s Independence 4.2 Proverbs that Accuse the Women 4.3 Proverbs that Prescribe Behavioral Pattern and Impose Subordinating Complex on Women 5 Conclusion References 17 Fowl-Related Proverbs in Anaañ: A Socio-semantic Approach Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Relevant Scholarship 2.1 Theoretical Framework 2.2 Fowl-Related Proverbs1 3 Data Presentation and Classification 4 Analysis of the Data 5 Discussion 6 Conclusion References 18 Ntak Ñkpekpem Asekke Adia Udia Akonayo Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Story 3 Conclusion 19 The Nativisation of English Language in Chimamanda Adichie’s Collection of Short Stories, The Thing Around Your Neck Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Igbonisation of Novels Written in English by Igbo Authors 3 Scholarly Works on Language Use in Literary Texts 4 Methods 4.1 Theoretical Framework 5 Data Analysis and Discussion 5.1 Code Switching/Mixing 5.2 Loan Blends 5.3 Reduplication 5.4 Transliteration 5.5 Semantic Extension 5.6 Igbo Cultural Beliefs 6 Conclusion References 20 The Metaphor of Ọrọ Riddles Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Issues in Semantics 3 Metaphor 3.1 Functions of Metaphor 4 Riddles 5 Theoretical Framework 6 Data Analysis 6.1 Theme of Death 6.2 Theme of Finite Knowledge 6.3 Theme of the Structure of Universe 6.4 Metaphoric Riddles: Theme of Marriage 6.5 Theme of Virtue 6.6 Theme of Resourcefulness 6.7 Theme of Danger 6.8 Theme of Human Structure 6.9 Theme of Hospitality 7 Discussion 8 Conclusion References Indigenous Language Use, Communication and Status 21 Bridging Language Gap, Promoting Deaf Literacy in Nigeria Through Indigenous Sign Languages Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Overview 2.1 Deafness and Deaf Children in Nigeria 2.2 Language Deprivation, Leading to Language Gap Among Deaf Children 2.3 Immediate Language 2.4 Immediate family 2.5 Early Intervention Program for Deaf Children 3 Evidence of Communication Gap in Nigerian Deaf Community (NDC) 4 Results and Findings 4.1 Underlying Possibilities 4.2 Descriptions 4.3 Implications for Indigenous Sign Languages and Deaf Language Acquisition 5 Conclusion References 22 Digital Tools and COVID-19 Awareness in Nigeria: A Speech Acts Analysis Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Problem Statement 3 Related Works 4 Methodology 5 Data Analysis 5.1 Research Question 1—How Do the Social Media as a Digital Tool Help in Creating COVID-19 Awareness? 5.2 Research Question 2—What Are the Types of Speech Acts Found in the Social Media? 5.2.1 GROUP A: Covid-19 Motivated Memes on Socio-economic Effects on Nigerians 5.2.2 GROUP B: Covid-19 Motivated Memes on Health Facilities 5.2.3 GROUP C: Covid-19 Motivated Memes on Religion and Religious Leaders 5.2.4 GROUP C: Covid-19-Motivated-Memes on Religion and Religious Leaders 5.2.5 GROUP D: Covid-19 Motivated Memes on Political Leaders and Corruption 5.2.6 GROUP E: Covid-19 Motivated Memes on Importance of Human Lives 5.3 Research Question 3—What Is the Preponderance of the Speech Act Types Found in the Social Media? 6 Discussion 7 Conclusion Reference 23 Nsìbìdì: An Indigenous Language of Communication in the Cross River Region Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Communication 2 The Ekpe Secret Society 3 The Cross River Region 4 Related Works 4.1 Ekpe Society and Nsìbìdì Language 4.2 Development of Nsìbìdì Language in the Cross River Region 5 Conclusion References 24 Unification and Harmonization of Afenmai Languages: Issues and Challenges Abstract 1 Introduction 2 The Edoid Languages and The Edoid Speaking Peoples 3 Afenmai Languages 3.1 Overview of the Languages 3.2 Linguistic Diversity and Mutual Intelligibility 3.3 Linguistic Features and Their Distribution 4 Understanding the Challenges 5 What is Unification and Harmonization? 5.1 Advantages of Unification 5.2 Harmonising and Unifying Edoid Languages 6 Conclusion References 25 Linguistic Colonialism and Its Implications on Indigenous Languages in Nigeria Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Language 2 Linguistic Colonialism and Indigenous Languages 3 Attitudes of Speakers of Nigerian Indigenous Languages Towards Their Own Languages 4 Factors Responsible for the Dominant Use of English Language Over Nigerian Indigenous Languages 5 Suggestions to Revitalize Indigenous Languages in Nigeria 6 Conclusion References 26 Significance of Indigenous Songs in Ibibio Cultural Heritage Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Ibibio Language 3 Methodology 4 Types of Ibibio Songs 4.1 Occupational Songs 4.2 Social Control Songs 4.3 Birth and Lullaby Songs 4.4 Funeral Songs 4.5 Marriage, and Family Life 4.6 Moonlight Songs 5 Discussion 6 Conclusion References 27 Religious Rhetoric and Church Development in Rural Nigeria Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Definitions 3 Related Works 3.1 The Interplay Between Religion and Language 3.2 The Church and Development 4 Methodology 4.1 Research Design 4.2 Research Aim and Objectives 4.3 Study Area, Population and Sample Size 4.4 Data Collection and Analysis Technique 5 Data Analysis 5.1 Data on Closed Ended Questions 5.2 Data on Open Ended Questions 6 Discussion 7 Conclusion References 28 Communication for Social Mobilization in Selected MAMSER Campaign Speeches Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Theoretical Background 3 Method 3.1 Sentence Length 4 Data Analysis 4.1 Audience 4.2 Interest 4.3 Clarity 5 Conclusion References 29 A Conceptual Analysis of Itu Mbon Uso Folktales Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Theoretical Issues 2.1 Theoretical Framework 3 The Itu Mbon Usọ People 3.1 Itu Mbon Usọ Language 3.2 Itu Mbon Usọ Folktales 3.3 Previous Studies on Itu Mbon Usọ Folktales 4 The Role of Folktales in the Itu Mbon Uso Society 4.1 The Effect of Folktale on Itu Mbon Usọ Society 5 Data Analysis 5.1 Mythical Folktales 5.1.1 Conceptual Analysis 5.2 Legendary Folktales 5.2.1 Conceptual Analysis 5.3 Fables 5.3.1 Conceptual Analysis 5.4 Proverbs 6 Discussion 7 Conclusion References 30 Gender Marking in English and Ibibio Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Gender Classification 2.1 Natural Gender in English and Ibibio 2.2 Grammatical Gender in English and Ibibio 3 Neuter Gender 4 Similarity and Contrastive Points 5 Conclusion References 31 Code Mixing in Pentecostal Churches Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Methods 2.1 Data Collection 3 Data Analysis 3.1 Testimony Session 3.2 Choir Rendition Session 4 Conclusion References 32 An Epigraphy of Igbo Inscriptions on Tricycles in Aba Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Definitions and Review of Formal and Informal Sources 2.1 Epigraphy 3 Study Town, Language and Data Source 3.1 Aba 3.2 Igbo 3.3 Tricycles 3.4 Thought Pattern 4 The Use Theory of Meaning 5 Methodology 5.1 Igbo Inscriptions on Tricycles 5.1.1 Assertive Inscriptions 5.1.2 Nominative/Honorific Inscriptions 5.1.3 Question Inscriptions 6 Discussion 7 Conclusion References 33 Gender Relations and Domestic Power Politics Abstract 1 Introduction 2 The Dynamics of Food and Power 3 The Mechanics of Power in the Family 4 Conclusion References Language Technology and Documentation 34 New Perspectives on Ibibio Speech Rhythm Abstract 1 Documenting and Describing Speech Prosody 1.1 Language Documentation and Cultural Identity 1.2 Objectives and Overview 2 Rhythm Formant Theory 2.1 Rhythm Formants: AM and FM 2.2 Rhythm in Modulation Theory 2.2.1 Rhythm Formants and Amplitude Modulation 2.2.2 Rhythm Formants and Frequency Modulation 3 Rhythm in Ibibio—AM, FM and Rhythm Formants 3.1 Data Types and Overview 3.2 The Low Frequency Rhythm Spectrum 3.3 Rhythm Variability and the Rhythm Spectrogram 3.4 Rhythm and Narrative Style: Aspects of Story Analysis 4 Ibibio Rhythm Compared to Rhythm in English and Chinese 4.1 Distance Metrics and Similarity Relations 4.2 Distance Networks and Hierarchical Clusters 4.3 Discussion 5 Rhythm in Ibibio—Isochrony and Irregularity 5.1 Isochrony and Irregularity Measures 5.2 Investigation of a Small Ibibio Corpus 5.2.1 Data, Method and Implementation 5.2.2 Results 6 Conclusion Acknowledgements References 35 Segmental Prominence and the Modulated Carrier Signal Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Ibibio 3 Grassfields Bantu 4 Other Languages 5 Segmental Prominence and the Modulated Carrier Signal 6 Conclusion References 36 Towards Massive Parallel Corpus Creation for Hausa-to-English Machine Translation Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Progress in Machine Translation 1.2 Translation Service 1.3 Neural Machine Translation 2 The Hausa Language 2.1 Hausa Phonological Structure 2.1.1 Vowel System 2.1.2 Consonant System 2.1.3 Syllable Structure 2.1.4 Tone System 3 Methods 3.1 Metadata, Data Value and Protocol 3.2 Data Source, Preprocessing 3.2.1 Audio/Video Preprocessing 3.2.2 Ibadan 400 Wordlist Preprocessing 3.2.3 Story/Fiction (Novel) Books Preprocessing 4 Processed Parallel MT Corpus 4.1 Translation Methods 4.1.1 Sentence Structure Coverage 4.1.2 Variation in Sentence Structure (English Vs. Hausa) 4.1.3 Similarity in Sentence Structure (English vs. Hausa): 4.2 Use of Grammatical Number (Singular and Plural) in Parallel Translation 4.3 Changes Caused by Possessive Construction 5 Conclusion Acknowledgements Appendix References Documentary Approaches to Lexicography 1 Introduction 2 Lexicography and Language Documentation 3 Goals of Dictionary Making for Under-Resourced Languages 4 The Workflow in Compiling a Dictionary 4.1 Content 4.2 Dictionary Structure and Technical Considerations 5 Conclusion References 38 A Tonal Re-patterning Framework for Modeling Anaañ Nominal Constructions Abstract 1 Introduction 1.1 Focus of the Study 2 Related Works 3 Anaañ Compounds and Associative Constructions 4 Transducer Model Formulation 4.1 Relational Transducer 4.2 Sequential Transducer 5 Method 5.1 Prototype Lexicon 5.2 FST Design 5.3 Proposed System Framework 6 Results 7 Conclusion Appendix References 39 Americanization of English in Nigerian Broadcasting: A Sociophonetic Insight into Traditional News Broadcast Versus Entertainment News Broadcast Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Related Works 2.1 Audience and Audience Research 2.2 American(ization) and the Nigerian Linguistic Space 2.3 Sociophonetics and Media 2.4 Data, Method and Research Goals 3 Discussion and Findings 3.1 R-fulness 3.2 Flapping 3.3 Speech Reduction or Contraction and Exclamatory American English Phrases 3.4 Intonation 3.5 Role of Americanization in the Nigerian Media Space 4 Conclusion Appendix References 40 The Effects of Word Frequency Distortions Occasioned by Compounding on the Automatic Indexing of Yorùbá Text Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Automatic Indexing 3 Frequency Distortion Occasioned by Compounding 4 Data Analysis and Discussion 5 Conclusion References Digital Animation of African Folktales: A Perspective from Yorùbá Experiments 1 Introduction 2 The Yorùbá Àlọ́ 2.1 Àlọ́ Àpamọ̀: Riddles 2.2 Àlọ́ Àpagbè: Narrative 3 Narrative Concept and Formulation 4 The Language of Narrative and Animation 5 Animation Development Procedure 5.1 Derivative Educational Resource 6 Conclusion References 42 A Conceptual Model for Digitalising Bette-Bendi Oral Traditions Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Problem Statement 3 Study Objectives, Research Questions 4 Related Works 5 Theoretical Framework 6 Methods 6.1 Data Collection 6.2 Proposed Conceptual Model 7 Data Analysis 7.1 Extracts from Existing Folktales 7.1.1 Extract 1—Ungingie Ubibi Umohng Unwai “The Bad Woman Who Rejected Her Child” 7.1.2 Extract 2—The Woman Who Begot Half-Nosed Children 7.1.3 Extract 3—Keten-Ten Gwuigwu 7.1.4 Extract 4—The Oldest Animal in the Wild 7.1.5 Extract 5—Why the Monitor Lizard (Iguana) is Deaf 8 Conclusion Acknowledgements References Yorùbá Counting System Versus Roman, Chinese, Hindu-Arabic, Hausa and Igbo Counting Systems: A Computational Comparison 1 Introduction 2 Yorùbá Counting System 3 Yorùbá and The Roman Counting System 4 Yorùbá and Chinese Counting System 5 Yorùbá and The Hindu-Arabic Counting System 6 Yorùbá and Hausa Counting System 7 Yorùbá and The Igbo Counting System 8 Findings 9 Conclusion References Digital Resources for African Languages Technologies: Challenges, Prospects and Strategies 1 Introduction 1.1 The Concept of Language 1.2 African Language 2 Situation of African Languages 2.1 Socio-linguistic Situation 2.2 Technological Situation 3 What Can We Do? 4 Example from Yorùbá Experiments 4.1 Yorùbá Concept of Language 4.2 Yorùbá Concept of Universe of Discourse 4.3 Yorùbá Conception of Primitive and Alphabet 4.4 Syntax and Structure 5 Conclusion References 45 Multimodality, Performance and Technopoetics in Johanna Waliya’s Bilingual African Digital Poetry Abstract 1 Introduction 2 The Emergence of Electronic Poetry 3 Classification of Digital Poetry as Genre 4 African Digital Literature and Poetry 5 Waliya’s Digital Poetry: Typology, Themes and Technopoetics 6 Digital Poetry: Multimodality, Performativity and Bilinguality 7 Conclusion References 46 Requesting Strategies in Nigerian and British English: A Corpus-Based Approach Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Requests 3 Method 4 Results 5 Discussion and Outlook 6 Conclusion Acknowledgements References 47 Electronic Resources and Literacy Skill in Igbo Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Review of Related Works 2.1 E-Resources 2.2 E-resources and Literacy Skill 3 Methodology 4 Result and Discussion 5 Conclusion References 48 Phonetic Convergence in a Prototype Dialogue System Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Phonetic Convergence 3 The Harmonia Dialogue Corpus 4 Perception Tests for Evaluating Phonetic Convergence 4.1 Preparing Re-Synthesised Speech Stimuli with Shifted Pitch Contour 4.2 Preparing Re-Synthesised Speech Stimuli with Manipulated Tempo 4.3 Speech Perception Test 5 Demonstrating a Prototype Dialogue System Based on Natural Dialogue 5.1 Designing and Recording a Dialogue 5.2 Analysing Dialogue Annotations 5.3 Creating a Finite-State Transducer (FST) for Dialogue Modelling 5.4 Implementing and Evaluating the Dialogue System 6 Conclusion Acknowledgements References