Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry

Description

Contents in Brief......Page 10 Contents......Page 12 Preface......Page 20 About the Cover......Page 29 Health-Related Topics......Page 30 1-1 Why Do We Call Chemistry the Study of Matter?......Page 35 1-2 What is the Scientific Method?......Page 37 1-3 How Do Scientists Report Numbers?......Page 39 1-4 How Do We Make Measurements?......Page 41 1-5 What is a Handy Way to Convert from One Unit to Another?......Page 46 1-6 What are the States of Matter?......Page 51 1-7 What are Density and Specific Gravity?......Page 52 1-8 How Do We Describe the Various Forms of Energy?......Page 54 1-9 How Do We Describe Heat and the Ways in Which It is Transferred?......Page 55 Problems......Page 60 2-1 What is Matter Made Of?......Page 65 2-2 How Do We Classify Matter?......Page 66 2-3 What are the Postulates of Dalton's Atomic Theory?......Page 69 2-4 What are Atoms Made Of?......Page 72 2-5 What is the Periodic Table?......Page 77 2-6 How are the Electrons in an Atom Arranged?......Page 83 2-7 How are Electron Configuration and Position in the Periodic Table Related?......Page 90 2-8 What is a Periodic Property?......Page 91 Summary of Key Questions......Page 94 Problems......Page 96 3-2 What is the Octet Rule?......Page 102 3-3 How Do We Name Anions and Cations?......Page 105 3-4 What are the Two Major Types of Chemical Bonds?......Page 107 3-5 What is an Ionic Bond?......Page 109 3-6 How Do We Name Ionic Compounds?......Page 111 3-7 What is a Covalent Bond?......Page 114 3-8 How Do We Name Binary Covalent Compounds?......Page 121 3-9 What is Resonance?......Page 122 3-10 How Do We Predict Bond Angles in Covalent Molecules?......Page 126 3-11 How Do We Determine If a Molecule is Polar?......Page 131 Summary of Key Questions......Page 133 Problems......Page 134 4-1 What is a Chemical Reaction?......Page 145 4-2 How Do We Balance Chemical Equations?......Page 146 4-3 How Can We Predict If Ions in Aqueous Solution Will React with Each Other?......Page 150 4-4 What are Oxidation and Reduction?......Page 153 4-5 What are Formula Weights and Molecular Weights?......Page 158 4-6 What is a Mole and How Do We Use It to Calculate Mass Relationships?......Page 159 4-7 How Do We Calculate Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions?......Page 163 4-8 What is Heat of Reaction?......Page 169 Summary of Key Questions......Page 170 Problems......Page 171 5-1 What are the Three States of Matter?......Page 179 5-2 What is Gas Pressure and How Do We Measure It?......Page 180 5-3 What are the Laws That Govern the Behavior of Gases?......Page 181 5-4 What are Avogadro's Law and the Ideal Gas Law?......Page 185 5-5 What is Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures?......Page 187 5-6 What is the Kinetic Molecular Theory?......Page 189 5-7 What Types of Intermolecular Attractive Forces Exist between Molecules?......Page 190 5-8 How Do We Describe the Behavior of Liquids at the Molecular Level?......Page 194 5-9 What are the Characteristics of the Various Types of Solids?......Page 201 5-10 What is a Phase Change and What Energies are Involved?......Page 203 Summary of Key Questions......Page 208 Problems......Page 209 6-1 What Do We Need to Know as We Begin?......Page 217 6-3 What are the Distinguishing Characteristics of Solutions? ......Page 218 6-4 What Factors Affect Solubility?......Page 220 6-5 What are the Most Common Units for Concentration?......Page 223 6-6 Why is Water Such a Good Solvent?......Page 229 6-7 What are Colloids?......Page 234 6-8 What is a Colligative Property?......Page 236 Summary of Key Questions......Page 243 Problems......Page 244 7-1 How Do We Measure Reaction Rates?......Page 251 7-2 Why Do Some Molecular Collisions Result in Reaction Whereas Others Do Not?......Page 253 7-3 What is the Relationship between Activation Energy and Reaction Rate?......Page 255 7-4 How Can We Change the Rate of a Chemical Reaction?......Page 257 7-5 What Does It Mean to Say That a Reaction Has Reached Equilibrium?......Page 261 7-6 What is an Equilibrium Constant and How Do We Use It?......Page 264 7-7 What is Le Chatelier's Principle?......Page 269 Summary of Key Questions......Page 275 Problems......Page 276 8-1 What are Acids and Bases?......Page 282 8-2 How Do We Define the Strength of Acids and Bases?......Page 284 8-3 What are Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs?......Page 286 8-4 How Can We Tell the Position of Equilibrium in an Acid-Base Reaction?......Page 289 8-5 How Do We Use Acid Ionization Constants?......Page 291 8-6 What are the Properties of Acids and Bases?......Page 294 8-7 What are the Acidic and Basic Properties of Pure Water?......Page 297 8-8 What are pH and pOH?......Page 299 8-9 How Do We Use Titrations to Calculate Concentration?......Page 302 8-10 What are Buffers?......Page 304 8-11 How Do We Calculate the pH of a Buffer?......Page 308 8-12 What are TRIS, HEPES, and These Buffers with the Strange Names?......Page 310 Summary of Key Questions......Page 313 Problems......Page 314 9-1 How was Radioactivity Discovered?......Page 319 9-2 What is Radioactivity?......Page 320 9-3 What Happens When a Nucleus Emits Radioactivity?......Page 321 9-4 What is Nuclear Half-Life?......Page 326 9-5 How Do We Detect and Measure Nuclear Radiation?......Page 329 9-6 How is Radiation Dosimetry Related to Human Health?......Page 332 9-7 What is Nuclear Medicine?......Page 335 9-8 What is Nuclear Fusion?......Page 340 9-9 What is Nuclear Fission and How is It Related to Atomic Energy?......Page 342 Summary of Key Questions......Page 344 Summary of Key Reactions......Page 345 Problems......Page 346 10-1 What is Organic Chemistry?......Page 352 10-2 Where Do We Obtain Organic Compounds?......Page 354 10-3 How Do We Write Structural Formulas of Organic Compounds?......Page 356 10-4 What is a Functional Group?......Page 358 Problems......Page 364 11-1 What are Alkanes?......Page 369 11-2 How Do We Write Structural Formulas of Alkanes?......Page 370 11-3 What are Constitutional Isomers?......Page 371 11-4 How Do We Name Alkanes?......Page 374 11-6 What are Cycloalkanes?......Page 378 11-7 What are the Shapes of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes?......Page 380 11-8 What is Cis-Trans Isomerism in Cycloalkanes?......Page 384 11-9 What are the Physical Properties of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes?......Page 386 11-10 What are the Characteristic Reactions of Alkanes?......Page 389 11-11 What are Some Important Haloalkanes?......Page 391 Summary of Key Questions......Page 392 Summary of Key Reactions......Page 393 Problems......Page 394 12-1 What are Alkenes and Alkynes?......Page 400 12-2 What are the Structures of Alkenes and Alkynes?......Page 401 12-3 How Do We Name Alkenes and Alkynes?......Page 403 12-5 What are the Characteristic Reactions of Alkenes?......Page 410 12-6 What are the Important Polymerization Reactions of Ethylene and Substituted Ethylenes?......Page 419 Summary of Key Questions......Page 422 Problems......Page 423 13-1 What is the Structure of Benzene?......Page 430 13-2 How Do We Name Aromatic Compounds?......Page 432 13-3 What are the Characteristic Reactions of Benzene and Its Derivatives?......Page 436 13-4 What are Phenols?......Page 438 Problems......Page 445 Ch 14: Alcohols, Ethers, and Thiols......Page 450 14-1 What are the Structures, Names, and Physical Properties of Alcohols?......Page 451 14-2 What are the Characteristic Reactions of Alcohols?......Page 454 14-3 What are the Structures, Names, and Physical Properties of Ethers?......Page 461 14-4 What are the Structures, Names, and Physical Properties of Thiols?......Page 465 14-5 What are the Most Commercially Important Alcohols?......Page 467 Summary of Key Questions......Page 468 Problems......Page 469 15-1 What is Enantiomerism?......Page 476 15-2 How Do We Specify the Configuration of a Stereocenter?......Page 483 15-3 How Many Stereoisomers are Possible for Molecules with Two or More Stereocenters?......Page 486 15-4 What is Optical Activity, and How is Chirality Detected in the Laboratory?......Page 490 15-5 What is the Significance of Chirality in the Biological World?......Page 492 Summary of Key Questions......Page 493 Problems......Page 494 16-1 What are Amines?......Page 500 16-2 How Do We Name Amines?......Page 503 16-3 What are the Physical Properties of Amines?......Page 505 16-4 How Do We Describe the Basicity of Amines?......Page 506 16-5 What are the Characteristic Reactions of Amines?......Page 508 Problems......Page 512 17-1 What are Aldehydes and Ketones?......Page 519 17-2 How Do We Name Aldehydes and Ketones?......Page 520 17-3 What are the Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones?......Page 523 17-4 What are the Characteristic Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones?......Page 524 17-5 What is Keto-Enol Tautomerism?......Page 531 Summary of Key Reactions......Page 532 Problems......Page 533 18-2 How Do We Name Carboxylic Acids?......Page 540 18-3 What are the Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids?......Page 543 18-4 What are Soaps and Detergents?......Page 544 18-5 What are the Characteristic Reactions of Carboxylic Acids?......Page 550 Summary of Key Reactions......Page 557 Problems......Page 558 19-1 What are Carboxylic Anhydrides, Esters, and Amides?......Page 565 19-2 How Do We Prepare Esters?......Page 568 19-3 How Do We Prepare Amides?......Page 569 19-4 What are the Characteristic Reactions of Anhydrides, Esters, and Amides?......Page 570 19-5 What are Phosphoric Anhydrides and Phosphoric Esters?......Page 577 19-6 What is Step-Growth Polymerization?......Page 578 Summary of Key Questions......Page 580 Summary of Key Reactions......Page 581 Problems......Page 582 20-1 Carbohydrates: What are Monosaccharides?......Page 588 20-2 What are the Cyclic Structures of Monosaccharides?......Page 593 20-3 What are the Characteristic Reactions of Monosaccharides?......Page 598 20-4 What are Disaccharides and Oligosaccharides?......Page 604 20-5 What are Polysaccharides?......Page 608 20-6 What are Acidic Polysaccharides?......Page 610 Summary of Key Questions......Page 612 Summary of Key Reactions......Page 613 Problems......Page 614 21-1 What are Lipids?......Page 621 21-2 What are the Structures of Triglycerides?......Page 622 21-3 What are Some Properties of Triglycerides?......Page 623 21-4 What are the Structures of Complex Lipids?......Page 626 21-5 What Role Do Lipids Play in the Structure of Membranes?......Page 627 21-6 What are Glycerophospholipids?......Page 629 21-7 What are Sphingolipids?......Page 631 21-8 What are Glycolipids?......Page 632 21-9 What are Steroids?......Page 633 21-10 What are Some of the Physiological Roles of Steroid Hormones?......Page 640 21-11 What are Bile Salts?......Page 644 21-12 What are Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, and Leukotrienes?......Page 646 Summary of Key Questions......Page 650 Problems......Page 651 22-1 What are the Many Functions of Proteins?......Page 655 22-2 What are Amino Acids?......Page 656 22-3 What are Zwitterions?......Page 657 22-4 How Do Amino Acids Combine to Form Proteins?......Page 662 22-5 What Determines the Characteristics of Amino Acids?......Page 665 22-7 What are the Properties of Proteins?......Page 667 22-8 What is the Primary Structure of a Protein?......Page 670 22-9 What is the Secondary Structure of a Protein?......Page 673 22-10 Interlude: How Does the Presence of Transition Metals Affect the Structure of Proteins?......Page 675 22-11 What is the Tertiary Structure of a Protein?......Page 680 22-12 What is the Quaternary Structure of a Protein?......Page 681 22-13 How are Proteins Denatured?......Page 685 Summary of Key Questions......Page 690 Problems......Page 691 23-1 What are Enzymes?......Page 696 23-2 How are Enzymes Named and Classified?......Page 698 23-4 What Factors Influence Enzyme Activity?......Page 700 23-5 What are the Mechanisms of Enzyme Action?......Page 701 23-6 How are Enzymes Regulated?......Page 708 23-7 How are Enzymes Used in Medicine?......Page 711 23-8 What are Transition-State Analogs and Designer Enzymes?......Page 713 Summary of Key Questions......Page 716 Problems......Page 717 24-1 How Do Cells Communicate?......Page 723 24-2 What is the Difference between a Neurotransmitter and a Hormone?......Page 724 24-3 How Does a Cholinergic Messenger Work?......Page 725 24-4 What Amino Acids Act as Neurotransmitters?......Page 733 24-5 What are Adrenergic Messengers?......Page 734 24-6 What is the Role of Peptides in Chemical Communication?......Page 740 24-7 How Do Steroid Hormones Act as Messengers?......Page 743 24-8 How Do Drugs Affect Chemical Communication?......Page 745 Summary of Key Questions......Page 749 Problems......Page 750 25-1 What are the Molecules of Heredity?......Page 754 25-2 What are Nucleic Acids Made Of?......Page 755 25-3 What is the Structure of DNA and RNA?......Page 760 25-4 What are the Different Classes of RNA?......Page 766 25-5 What are Genes?......Page 769 25-6 How is DNA Replicated?......Page 770 25-7 How is DNA Repaired?......Page 777 25-8 How Do We Amplify DNA?......Page 779 Summary of Key Questions......Page 784 Problems......Page 785 26-1 How Does DNA Lead to RNA and Protein?......Page 788 26-2 How is DNA Transcribed into RNA?......Page 789 26-3 What is the Role of RNA in Translation?......Page 792 26-4 What is the Genetic Code?......Page 793 26-5 How is Protein Synthesized?......Page 794 26-6 How are Genes Regulated?......Page 799 26-7 What are Mutations?......Page 807 26-8 How and Why Do We Manipulate DNA?......Page 811 26-9 What is Gene Therapy?......Page 812 26-10 What is Epigenetics?......Page 815 Summary of Key Questions......Page 818 Problems......Page 819 27-1 What is Metabolism?......Page 823 27-2 What are Mitochondria and What Role Do They Play in Metabolism?......Page 824 27-3 What are the Principal Compounds of the Common Metabolic Pathway?......Page 827 27-4 What Role Does the Citric Acid Cycle Play in Metabolism?......Page 830 27-5 How Do Electron and H+ Transport Take Place?......Page 834 27-6 What is the Role of the Chemiosmotic Pump in ATP Production?......Page 836 27-8 How is Chemical Energy Converted to Other Forms of Energy?......Page 838 Summary of Key Questions......Page 840 Problems......Page 841 28-1 What is the General Outline of Catabolic Pathways?......Page 846 28-2 What are the Reactions of Glycolysis?......Page 847 28-3 What is the Energy Yield from Glucose Catabolism?......Page 852 28-5 What are the Reactions of B-Oxidation of Fatty Acids?......Page 855 28-6 What is the Energy Yield from Stearic Acid Catabolism?......Page 857 28-7 What are Ketone Bodies?......Page 858 28-8 How is the Nitrogen of Amino Acids Processed in Catabolism?......Page 860 28-9 How are the Carbon Skeletons of Amino Acids Processed in Catabolism?......Page 864 28-10 What are the Reactions of Catabolism of Heme?......Page 866 Summary of Key Questions......Page 867 Problems......Page 868 29-1 What is the General Outline of Biosynthetic Pathways?......Page 871 29-2 How Does the Biosynthesis of Carbohydrates Take Place?......Page 872 29-3 How Does the Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids Take Place?......Page 876 29-4 How Does the Biosynthesis of Membrane Lipids Take Place?......Page 879 29-5 How Does the Biosynthesis of Amino Acids Take Place?......Page 882 Problems......Page 884 30-1 How Do We Measure Nutrition?......Page 887 30-2 Why Do We Count Calories?......Page 891 30-3 How Does the Body Process Dietary Carbohydrates?......Page 893 30-5 How Does the Body Process Dietary Protein?......Page 895 30-6 What is the Importance of Vitamins, Minerals, and Water?......Page 897 Summary of Key Questions......Page 906 Problems......Page 907 31-1 How Does the Body Defend Itself from Invasion?......Page 909 31-2 What Organs and Cells Make Up the Immune System?......Page 911 31-3 How Do Antigens Stimulate the Immune System?......Page 914 31-4 What are Immunoglobulins?......Page 915 31-5 What are T Cells and T-Cell Receptors?......Page 920 31-6 Immunization......Page 922 31-7 How Does the Body Distinguish "Self" from "Nonself"?......Page 925 31-8 How Does the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Cause AIDS?......Page 929 Summary of Key Questions......Page 937 Problems......Page 939 Appendix I: Exponential Notation......Page 941 Appendix II: Significant Figures......Page 945 Answers......Page 948 Glossary......Page 1019 Index......Page 1039