Cyber Mercenaries: The State, Hackers, and Power

Description

Cyber Mercenaries explores the secretive relationships between states and hackers. As cyberspace has emerged as the new frontier for geopolitics, states have become entrepreneurial in their sponsorship, deployment, and exploitation of hackers as proxies to project power. Such modern-day mercenaries and privateers can impose significant harm undermining global security, stability, and human rights. These state-hacker relationships therefore raise important questions about the control, authority, and use of offensive cyber capabilities. While different countries pursue different models for their proxy relationships, they face the common challenge of balancing the benefits of these relationships with their costs and the potential risks of escalation. This book examines case studies in the United States, Iran, Syria, Russia, and China for the purpose of establishing a framework to better understand and manage the impact and risks of cyber proxies on global politics. Cover ......Page 1 Half-title page......Page 3 Title page......Page 5 Copyright page......Page 6 Contents......Page 7 List of Figures......Page 10 Preface......Page 11 Acknowledgments......Page 18 List of Abbreviations......Page 21 Part I Of Brokers and Proxies ......Page 23 1 Cyber Proxies: An Introduction......Page 25 Proxies and Cyber Power......Page 28 What Cyber Proxies Are (Theoretically) Capable Of......Page 30 What Cyber Proxies Are Likely to Be Used For......Page 36 The Pool of Potential Cyber Proxies......Page 38 Proxy Relationships and Selected Cases......Page 42 Proxies and the Attribution Problem......Page 44 A Few Words on Methodology......Page 47 Conclusion: Cyber Proxies and the Bigger Picture......Page 48 2 Proxies: An Instrument of Power Since Ancient Times......Page 51 A Framework for Thinking About Proxies......Page 53 Why Proxy Relationships Exist......Page 57 Three Main Types of Proxy Relationships: Delegation, Orchestration, and Sanctioning......Page 64 Conclusion: It’s the Relationship That Matters......Page 70 3 Cyber Power: Geopolitics and Human Rights......Page 72 The Bigger Picture: Sovereignty and Information......Page 74 The US Government’s Perspective......Page 77 The Russian Government’s Perspective......Page 80 The Chinese Government’s Perspective......Page 83 The Iranian Government’s Perspective......Page 86 Conclusion: Cybersecurity Is in the Eye of the Beholder......Page 88 Part II Cyber Proxies Up Close ......Page 91 4 Cyber Proxies on a Tight Leash: The United States......Page 93 Private Cybersecurity Contractors......Page 95 Delegation Under the Spotlight: US Cyber Command and Cybersecurity Contractors......Page 98 Private Cybersecurity Contractors and Internal Security......Page 100 Conclusion: Predictable Proliferation of Capabilities......Page 101 5 Cyber Proxies on a Loose Leash: Iran and Syria......Page 103 Orchestration under the Spotlight: The US Indictment of Iranian Hackers......Page 106 Orchestration in Wartime: The Syrian Electronic Army......Page 111 Conclusion: Unexpected Escalation and Limited Options for Response......Page 114 6 Cyber Proxies on the Loose: The Former Soviet Union......Page 116 Sanctioning in Peacetime: The 2007 DDoS Attack on Estonia......Page 119 Sanctioning in Wartime: The Conflict in Ukraine (2014–Today) ......Page 120 Blitz Orchestration: The War Against Georgia in 2008......Page 123 Sanctioning and Mobilizing: The March 2017 US Indictment of Russian Hackers......Page 125 Conclusion: Sanctioning and Statehood......Page 127 7 Change Over Time: China’s Evolving Relationships with Cyber Proxies......Page 129 The Rise of Hacktivists in China and the Government’s Passive Support (1994–2003)......Page 130 The Creation of Militia Units and the Move Towards Orchestration (2003–13)......Page 134 Tightening Control and Aspirational Delegation (2013–Today)......Page 137 Conclusion: From Broker State to (Aspirational) Monopolist......Page 139 Part III Implications ......Page 143 8 The Theory: State Responsibility and Cyber Proxies......Page 145 A Framework for Cyber Proxy Relationships Based on International Law......Page 147 Due Diligence......Page 152 Third Countries and Extraterritoriality......Page 154 Conclusion: International Cooperation Under Pressure......Page 156 9 The Practice: Shaping Cyber Proxy Relationships......Page 160 Keeping One’s Own House in Order: Determining Inherently Governmental Functions......Page 164 Keeping One’s Own House in Order: Determining the Role of the Private Sector......Page 166 Keeping One’s Own House in Order: Nationalism and Hacktivism......Page 168 Conclusion: Nudging and Managing Instead of Dictating and Prohibiting......Page 171 10 Conclusion: Cyber Proxies, the Future, and Suggestions for Further Research......Page 173 Future Research......Page 180 Notes ......Page 186 Index......Page 257