Language Change, Variation, and Universals

Description

This volume explores how human languages become what they are, why they differ from one another in certain ways but not in others, and why they change in the ways that they do. Given that language is a universal creation of the human mind, the puzzle is why there are different languages at all: why do we not all speak the same language? Moreover, while there is considerable variation, in some ways grammars do show consistent patterns: why are languages similar in those respects, and why are those particular patterns preferred? Peter Culicover proposes that the solution to these puzzles is a constructional one. Grammars consist of constructions that carry out the function of expressing universal conceptual structure. While there are in principle many different ways of accomplishing this task, languages are under press to reduce constructional complexity. The result is that there is constructional change in the direction of less complexity, and grammatical patterns emerge that more efficiently reflect conceptual universals. The volume is divided into three parts: the first establishes the theoretical foundations; the second explores variation in argument structure, grammatical functions, and A-bar constructions, drawing on data from a variety of languages including English and Plains Cree; and the third examines constructional change, focusing primarily on Germanic. The study ends with observations and speculations on parameter theory, analogy, the origins of typological patterns, and Greenbergian 'universals'. Cover Language Change, Variation, and Universals: A Constructional Approach Copyright Contents Acknowledgments Preface List of Abbreviations Part I: Foundations 1: Overview 1.1 The problem 1.2 Constructions 1.2.1 Basics 1.2.2 Constructions are not derivations 1.3 Antecedents 2: Constructions 2.1 Introduction 2.2 What a grammar is for 2.3 A framework for constructions 2.3.1 Representing constructions 2.3.2 Licensing 2.3.3 Linear order 2.4 Appendix: Formalizing constructions 2.4.1 Representations on tiers 2.4.2 Connections between tiers 2.4.3 Licensing via instantiation 3: Universals 3.1 Classical Universal Grammar 3.1.1 Core grammar 3.1.2 Parameters 3.1.3 UG and emerging grammars 3.2 Another conception of universals 3.3 On the notion ‘possible human language’ 3.3.1 Possible constructions 3.3.2 An example: Negation 3.3.3 Another example: The imperative 3.4 Against uniformity 4: Learning, complexity, and competition 4.1 Acquiring constructions 4.2 Constructional innovation 4.3 Constructions in competition 4.3.1 Multiple grammars vs. multiple constructions 4.3.2 Defining competition 4.3.3 When do we actually have competition? 4.4 Economy 4.4.1 Representational complexity 4.4.2 Computational complexity 4.4.3 Interpretive complexity 4.5 Simulating competition 4.6 Summary Part II: Variation 5: Argument structure 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Argument structure constructions (ASCs) 5.2.1 Devices 5.2.2 CS features 5.3 Differential marking 5.3.1 Differential subject marking 5.3.2 Differential object marking 5.4 Modeling differential marking 5.4.1 Acquisition of ASCs 5.4.2 Simulation 5.5 Summary 6: Grammatical functions 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The notion of ‘subject’ 6.3 Morphologically rich ASCs 6.3.1 Plains Cree argument structure 6.3.2 Incorporation 6.3.3 Complexity in ASCs 6.4 Split intransitive 6.5 The emergence of grammatical functions 6.6 Summary 7: A′ constructions 7.1 Foundations 7.2 Doing A′ work 7.2.1 Gaps and chains 7.2.2 Relatives 7.2.3 Topicalization 7.3 Scope in situ 7.3.1 Wh-in-situ 7.3.2 In situ in polysynthesis 7.3.3 Other in situ 7.3.4 Cryptoconstructional in situ 7.4 Extensions of A′ constructions 7.5 Toward an A′ constructional typology 7.6 Summary Part III: Change 8: Constructional change in Germanic 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Basic clausal constructions of Modern German 8.2.1 Initial position in the clause 8.2.2 Position of the finite verb in the main clause 8.2.3 Position of the verb in a subordinate clause 8.2.4 Position of the verb in questions 8.3 The development of English 8.3.1 The position of the verb 8.3.2 The ‘loss’ of V2 in English 8.3.3 The loss of case marking 8.4 The development of Modern German from Old High German 8.5 Verb clusters 8.6 Conclusion 9: Changes outside of the CCore 9.1 English reflexives 9.1.1 Reflexivity in constructions 9.1.2 Variation and change in reflexive constructions 9.2 Auxiliary do 9.2.1 The emergence of do 9.2.2 The spread of do 9.3 Preposition stranding 9.3.1 Why p-stranding? 9.3.2 P-passive 9.3.3 Coercion 9.4 Conclusion 10: Constructional economy and analogy 10.1 The elements of style 10.2 Analogy 10.2.1 Maximizing economy 10.2.2 Routines 10.2.3 Pure style 10.3 Beyond parameters: Capturing the style 10.3.1 Baker’s Polysynthesis Parameter 10.3.2 Greenberg’s universals 10.3.3 Non-Greenbergian universals 10.4 Summary 11: Recapitulation and prospects References Language Index Author Index Subject Index