Behavioural and Ecological Consequences of Urban Life in Birds

Description

Urbanization is next to global warming the largest threat to biodiversity. Indeed, it is becoming increasingly evident that many bird species get locally extinct as a result of urban development. However, many bird species benefit from urbanization, especially through the abundance of human-provided resources, and increase in abundance and densities. These birds are intriguing to study in relation to its resilience and adaption to urban environments, but also in relation to its susceptibility and the potential costs of urban life. This Research Topic consisting of 30 articles (one review, two meta-analyzes and 27 original data papers) provides insights into species and population responses to urbanization through diverse lenses, including biogeography, community ecology, behaviour, life history evolution, and physiology. Cover Frontiers Copyright Statement Behavioural and Ecological Consequences of Urban Life in Birds Table of Contents Editorial: Behavioural and Ecological Consequences of Urban Life in Birds Introduction Fear and Boldness Behavioral and Fitness Consequences of Human-Provided Resources Physiological and Behavioral Effects to Novel Abiotic Stressors Reproduction and Life History Biodiversity and Conservation in Urban Habitats Conclusion Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments References Rural-Urban Differences in Escape Behavior of European Birds across a Latitudinal Gradient Introduction Materials and Methods Field Data Collection Additional Data Calculating the Phi Index Statistical Methods Results Discussion Ethics Statement Authors Contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Time Since Urbanization but Not Encephalisation Is Associated with Increased Tolerance of Human Proximity in Birds Introduction Materials and Methods Data Collection Comparative Analysis Results Discussion Author Contributions Funding Supplementary Material References Behavioral Correlations Associated with Fear of Humans Differ between Rural and Urban Burrowing Owls Introduction Materials and Methods Study Species, Area and Population Monitoring Behavioral Experiments Risk Taking Exploration/Avoidance Antipredatory Behavior Analytical Procedures Results Discussion Ethics Statement Author Contributions Acknowledgments References An Approach to Distinguish between Plasticity and Non-random Distributions of Behavioral Types Along Urban Gradients in a Wild Passerine Bird Introduction Methods Study Site Experimental Protocol Statistical Analyses Results Axes of Environmental Variation Phenotypic Plasticity and Non-random Distributions of Behavioral Types Discussion Author Contributions Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References First to Flush: The Effects of Ambient Noise on Songbird Flight Initiation Distances and Implications for Human Experiences with Nature Introduction Materials and Methods Data Analysis Results Discussion Ethics Statement Author Contributions Acknowledgments References Urban Great Tits (Parus major) Show Higher Distress Calling and Pecking Rates than Rural Birds across Europe Introduction Materials and Methods Study Areas and Sampling Behavioral Tests Statistical Analyses Results Discussion Ethics Statement Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments References Garden Bird Feeding: Insights and Prospects from a North-South Comparison of This Global Urban Phenomenon Introduction Definitions, Scale, and Geography North vs. South Human Motivations and Reasons for Feeding Feeding and Dependency Feeding and Disease Transmission Feeding and Avian Community Structure Directions for Future Research What Contribution Do Food Supplements Make to a Bird'S Diet? Proposal A Do Individual Birds Over-Commit to Defence of Feeders? Proposal B Do Individual Birds Experience Carry-Over Effects from Supplementary Feeding? Proposal C Does Feeding Influence Mating Strategies and Gene Flow in Urban Bird Populations? Proposal D Does Feeding Create an Ecological Trap for Urban Bird Populations? Proposal E Are Feeders Implicated in the Spread of Disease? Proposal F Does Feeding Inevitably Change Urban Bird Community Structure? Proposal G Concluding Remarks: What Needs to Be Done to Answer these Research Questions? Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments References Urban Bird Feeders Dominated by a Few Species and Individuals Introduction Methods Experimental Feeding Stations Species Visitation and Association Data Individual Visitation Data Statistical Analyses Species Visitation and Co-occurrence (Camera Trap Data) Individual Visitation (PIT-Tag Data) Results Camera Trap Visitation Events Structure of Bird Assemblage at Feeding Stations Species Visitation Patterns Species Associations Individual Visitation Patterns Discussion Summary of Findings Visitation Patterns Species Associations Underlying Foraging Mechanisms Individual Variability Conclusions Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Does Urbanization Affect Predation of Bird Nests? A Meta-Analysis Introduction Methods Literature Screening and Data Collection Scoring Urbanization Data Extraction Statistical Analyses Meta-Analyses and Meta-Regressions Sensitivity Analyses and Publication Bias Results General Results Meta-Analyses and Meta-Regressions Sensitivity Analyses and Publication Bias Discussion Code and Data Availability Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Switch to a Novel Breeding Resource Influences Coexistence of Two Passerine Birds Introduction Methods Comparing Insulation Properties of Natural Cavities and Nest Boxes Testing for Species-Specific Effects of Cold Snaps Influence of Elevation on Rate of Species Replacement across Populations Experimental Test of Nest Box Density on Dynamics of Species Replacement Statistical Analysis Results Testing the Assumption That Natural Cavities and Nest Boxes Differ In Insulation Properties Influence of Cold Snaps on Incubation Patterns and Nest Success Influence of Elevation on Dynamics of Species Replacement Influence of Experimental Manipulation of Nest Box Density on Settlement Patterns Discussion Ethics Statement Author Contributions Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Multi-Element Analysis of Blood Samples in a Passerine Species: Excesses and Deficiencies of Trace Elements in an Urbanization Study Introduction Materials and Methods Study Sites Reproductive Parameters and Blood Sampling Haptoglobin Assay NO2 Measurements Multi-Element Analysis Statistical Analysis Results Reproduction Parameters and Immune Marker Relationships between NO2 and Biological Parameters Relationships between Element Concentrations and Biological Parameters Discussion Conclusion Ethics Statement Author Contributions Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Anthropogenic Nest Materials May Increase Breeding Costs for Urban Birds Introduction Methods Study Species Study Site and Blood Samples Statistical Analyses Results Carpodacus Mexicanus Passer Domesticus Discussion Ethics Statement Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References The Influence of Urban Environments on Oxidative Stress Balance: A Case Study on the House Sparrow in the Iberian Peninsula Introduction Materials and Methods Area Characterization Bird Sampling Oxidative Stress Biomarkers Data Analysis Results Area Characterization Body Condition and Oxidative Stress Biomarkers Discussion Author Contributions Acknowledgments References Species-Dependent Effects of the Urban Environment on Fatty Acid Composition and Oxidative Stress in Birds Introduction Materials and Methods Study Species Field Sites and Sampling Fatty Acid Extraction and Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) Analysis Lipid Peroxidation Quantification Data Handling and Statistical Analyses Results Habitat Differences in FA Profiles Total SFA (totSFA) and MUFA ω-3 PUFA ω-6 PUFA ω-9 PUFA Species Differences in FA Profiles Habitat Differences in Health Markers ω-6/ω-3 PUFA Ratio Peroxidation Index (PI) Malondialdehyde (MDA) Discussion Habitat Differences in Fatty Acid Profiles Species and Family Differences in Fatty Acid Profiles Species and Habitat Differences in Health Markers Conclusions Ethics Statement Author Contributions Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Growing in Cities: An Urban Penalty for Wild Birds? A Study of Phenotypic Differences between Urban and Rural Great Tit Chicks (Parus major) Introduction Materials and Methods Study Sites and Data Collection Telomere Measurements Feather Color Analysis Statistical Analyses Results Discussion Urbanization and Body Size in Nestling Great Tits Urbanization and Plumage Characteristics Urbanization and Telomere Length Regional Differences in Nestlings' Morphology and Reproductive Output Author Contributions Acknowledgments References Elevated Immune Gene Expression Is Associated with Poor Reproductive Success of Urban Blue Tits Introduction Materials and Methods Experimental Design and Field Protocol Ethics Statement Expression of Immune and Reference Genes Primer Design RNA Extraction, Reverse Transcription and RT-qPCR Protocol Screening of Malaria Parasites Statistical Analysis Model Selection Approach Immune Transcript Levels and Malaria Prevalence in Adult Blue Tits Immune Transcript Levels and Malaria Prevalence in Cross-Fostered Nestlings Reproductive Investment and Breeding Success of Urban and Forest Cross-Fostered Nests Results Immune Transcript Levels and Malaria Prevalence of Urban and Forest Adults Immune Transcript Levels and Malaria Prevalence of Forest-Reared Nestlings Breeding Success in Urban and Forest Cross-Fostered Nests Discussion Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Artificial Light at Night Reduces Daily Energy Expenditure in Breeding Great Tits (Parus major) Introduction Methods Experimental Set-Up Daily Energy Expenditure Activity Measurements: Visit Rates and Activity Timing Caterpillar Availability Statistical Analyses Results Daily Energy Expenditure Activity Measurements: Visit Rates and Activity Timing Caterpillar Availability Discussion Ethics Statements Author contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Two Neural Measures Differ between Urban and Rural Song Sparrows after Conspecific Song Playback Introduction Materials and Methods Subjects Plasma Testosterone Histology Imaging and Quantification Statistics Results Plasma Testosterone FOS Immunoreactivity AVT Immunoreactivity Discussion Habitat Differences in Neural Response to Conspecific Song Habitat Differences in AVT-Like Immunoreactivity Conclusions Ethics Statement Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References European Blackbirds Exposed to Aircraft Noise Advance Their Chorus, Modify Their Song and Spend More Time Singing Introduction Materials and Methods Study Species and Study Site Noise Measurements High Quality Recordings and Song Analyses Automatic Recordings and Dawn Chorus Analyses Statistics Results Noise Song Characteristics Dawn Chorus Discussion Author Contributions Funding References Reproductive Contributions of Cardinals Are Consistent with a Hypothesis of Relaxed Selection in Urban Landscapes Introduction Materials and Methods Study System Surveys of Avian Communities Banding and Nest-Searching Calculation of Reproductive Contributions of Individuals to Local Populations Results Discussion Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments References Urbanization Is Associated with Divergence in Pace-of-Life in Great Tits Introduction Materials and Methods Study Area and Monitoring Sites and Monitoring Breeding Data Collection Urbanization Measures Behavioral Assays Data Analysis Results Discussion Phenotypic Divergence between Forest and City and along the Urbanization Gradient Plastic vs. Genetic Origin and Adaptive Nature of Divergence Perspectives on a Multivariate Long-Term Process Ethics Statement Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Humans and Tits in the City: Quantifying the Effects of Human Presence on Great Tit and Blue Tit Reproductive Trait Variation Introduction Methods Study Sites Life-History Data Ethics Statement Quantifying Human Presence Human Presence Protocol Distances from Paths and Roads Statistical Analyses Repeatability Statistical Analyses Results Repeatability of Human Presence on the Ground and With a GIS-Based Approach Effects of Human Presence, Distance to Paths and Roads on Life-History Traits and Reproductive Success Discussion Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Does Seasonal Decline in Breeding Performance Differ for an African Raptor across an Urbanization Gradient? Introduction Methods Study Site and Species Defining the Urban Gradient Statistical Analysis Ethical Note Results Urban Gradient Timing of Breeding and Breeding Performance along the Urban Gradient Discussion Conclusion Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments References Mechanisms Associated with an Advance in the Timing of Seasonal Reproduction in an Urban Songbird Introduction Methods Field Study Capture and Morphological Measures Blood Sample Collection—Field Luteinizing Hormone Assay Common Garden Study Bird Capture and Housing Blood Sample Collection—Captivity Morphological Measurements Gonadal Development Corticosterone and Testosterone Assays mRNA Extraction and qPCR DNA Extraction Feather isotopes Genotyping-by-sequencing Captive study classification Field study classification Statistical Analyses of Hormone and Physiology Data Field study Captive study Results Field Study Luteinizing Hormone Common Garden Study Gonads Cloacal Protuberance Volume Testosterone CORT Fat LHR and FSHR GR and MR Discussion Conclusions Author Contributions Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Urbanization Alters the Influence of Weather and an Index of Forest Productivity on Avian Community Richness and Guild Abundance in the Seattle Metropolitan Area Introduction Methods Study Region and Site Selection Bird Surveys Avian Richness and Relative Abundance Vegetation Greenness Index Annual Variation in Weather Statistical Analyses Results Variation in NDVI and Weather among Years and Sites Annual Variation in Bird Species Richness Does the Relationship of Richness to NDVI and Weather Vary with Site Type as Hypothesized? Variation in Abundance among Years and Sites Does the Relationship of Abundance to NDVI and Weather Vary with Site Type as Hypothesized? Discussion Limitations and Future Directions Ethics Statement Author Contributions Funding Supplementary Material References Impacts of Urban Areas and Their Characteristics on Avian Functional Diversity Introduction Methods Avian Assemblage Data Avian Trait Data Functional Diversity Metrics City Characteristics Statistical Analysis of Urbanization Effects Results Paired Analyses Regression Trees Discussion Conclusions Author contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Dispersal in the Urban Matrix: Assessing the Influence of Landscape Permeability on the Settlement Patterns of Breeding Songbirds Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion Conclusion Ethics Statement Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Changes over 26 Years in the Avifauna of the Bogotá Region, Colombia: Has Climate Change Become Important? Introduction Methods Study Area Audubon's Christmas Bird Count Methods and Circle The CBC Circle Analysis Results Land Cover and Temperature Changes General Ornithological Results Urban vs. Rural Areas Long-Term Changes in Birds in the Bogotá Area Discussion Lack of Continuity in Observations in Particular Sites Direct Human Actions ``Natural'' Changes in Some Habitats Interactions with Other Species Climate Change A Look at the Past A Glimpse into the Future The Present Study in the Context of Urban Ornithology in Latin America Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Predicting Metapopulation Responses to Conservation in Human-Dominated Landscapes Introduction Materials and Methods Study Area and Species Demographic Data Collection Demographic Parameters Transition Matrix Wood Thrush Occupancy and Abundance Estimates Metapopulation Model Structure Model Scenario Descriptions Scenario (A) Null Scenario (B) Reforest (Replace Impervious Surface) Scenario (C) Cowbird Removal Scenario (D) Reforest and Cowbird Removal Results Occupancy Model Results Regression Model Results Transition Matrix Metapopulation Simulation Results Discussion Ethics statement Author Contributions Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References The Degree of Urbanization of a Species Affects How Intensively It Is Studied: A Global Perspective Introduction Materials and Methods Bird Assemblages Research Effort Data, Urbanization and Species' Traits Statistical Analyses Results Discussion Author Contributions Funding Acknowledgments Supplementary Material References Back Cover