Non Conventional Energy Resources

Description

Cover Copyright Brief Contents Contents Preface About the Author Chapter 1: NCER—An Overview 1.1 History of Human Civilization 1.1.1 Primitive Man 1.1.2 Hunting Man 1.1.3 Early Agricultural Man 1.1.4 Advanced Agricultural Man 1.1.5 Industrial Man 1.1.6 Technological Man 1.1.7 Eco-friendly Technological Man 1.2 World Population and Energy Consumption Pattern Projection 1.3 Energy Systems Model 1.3.1 Production and Sustenance Activities 1.3.2 Inputs 1.3.3 Outputs 1.3.4 Feedback 1.3.5 Dissipation 1.4 System Acceptability Index (δ) 1.5 Causes of Energy Scarcity 1.5.1 Increasing Population 1.5.2 Increasing Energy Usage or Consumption 1.5.3 Uneven Distribution of Energy Resources 1.5.4 Lacks of Technical Knowhow 1.6 Solution to Energy Crisis or Scarcity 1.7 Factors Affecting Energy Resource Development 1.7.1 Energy or Fuel Substitution or Scale of Shift 1.7.2 Energy Density 1.7.3 Power Density 1.7.4 Intermittency 1.7.5 Geographical Energy Distribution 1.8 Quality of Energy Form 1.9 Energy Resources and Classification 1.9.1 Primary and Secondary Energy Resources 1.9.2 Oil 1.9.3 Natural Gas 1.9.4 Coal 1.9.5 Uranium 1.9.6 Hydroelectric Power 1.10 Energy Transfer Frames 1.11 Energy Conversion 1.11.1 Indirect Energy Conversion 1.11.1.1 Thermal-lectromechanical Energy Converters 1.11.1.2 Binary Cycle 1.11.1.3 Cogeneration 1.11.2 Hydroelectromechanical Energy Converters 1.11.3 Direct Energy Conversion 1.11.3.1 Photovoltaic Conversions 1.11.3.2 Working of Solar Cells 1.11.3.3 Thermionic Conversion 1.11.3.4 Fuel Cells 1.11.3.5 Thermoelectric Conversions 1.11.3.6 Magnetohydrodynamics 1.11.3.7 Working Principle 1.12 Renewable Energy 1.12.1 Worldwide Renewable Energy Availability 1.12.2 Renewable Energy in India 1.12.3 Solar Energy 1.12.4 Wind Power 1.12.5 Tidal Power 1.12.5.1 Calculation of Tidal Power Generation 1.12.5.2 Advantages of Tidal Power Generations 1.12.5.3 Development of Tidal Power Scheme in India 1.12.6 Wave Energy 1.12.6.1 Power Calculation for Ocean Waves 1.12.7 Ocean Thermal Energy 1.12.7.1 Principles of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 1.12.8 Biomass Energy 1.12.8.1 Photosynthesis in Plants 1.12.8.1.1 Oxygenic Photosynthesis 1.12.8.1.2 Anoxygenic photosynthesis 1.12.8.2 Biomass energy in India 1.12.8.3 Biological Hydrogen Production 1.12.8.4 Biogas Conversion 1.12.9 Decentralized and Dispersed Generation 1.12.9.1 Features of Dispersed Generation 1.12.9.2 Types of Distributed Energy Resources 1.12.9.3 Advantages for Dispersed Generation 1.12.9.4 Technological Options 1.12.9.5 Relevance of Distributed Generation in India 1.12.10 Geothermal Energy 1.13 Oil Shale 1.13.1 Extraction of Shale Oil 1.13.2 Classification of Oil Shales 1.13.3 Use of Shale Oil (Tight Oil) 1.13.4 Problems Associated with Shale Oil Production 1.14 Energy Storage 1.14.1 Hydro Pump Storage 1.14.2 Compressed Air Storage 1.14.3 Thermal Storage 1.14.4 Electrochemical Storage or Battery Storage 1.14.5 Inertial Storage 1.14.6 Hydrogen Storage 1.14.7 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage 1.15 Conclusions Summary Review Questions Chapter 2: Energy from the Sun 2.1 Sun–Earth Geometric Relationship 2.2 Layer of the Sun 2.2.1 Core 2.2.2 Solar Envelope 2.2.3 Photosphere 2.2.4 Chromospheres 2.2.5 Corona 2.3 Earth-Sun Angles and their Relationships 2.3.1 Hour Angle (ω) 2.3.2 Equation of Time 2.3.3 Declination Angle (δ) 2.3.4 Latitude Angle (ϕ) 2.3.5 Solar Altitude Angle (α) 2.3.6 Solar Elevation Angle (α) 2.3.7 Surface Azimuth Angle (γ) 2.3.8 Relationship Between Different Sun–Earth Angles 2.3.9 Sunrise, Sunset, and Day length Equations 2.3.10 Solar Time 2.4 Solar Energy Reaching the Earth’s Surface 2.4.1 Problems Associated with Harnessing Full Solar Energy 2.4.2 Extraterrestrial Irradiation 2.4.2.1 Solar Constant 2.4.2.2 Solar Radiation Spectrum 2.4.2.3 Solar Radiation Outside the Earth’s Atmospheres 2.4.2.3.1 Cosine Effect 2.4.2.4 Solar Radiation on the Earth’s Surface (Solar Insolation) 2.5 Solar Thermal Energy Applications 2.5.1 Passive Systems 2.5.2 Active System 2.5.3 Direct Thermal Applications 2.5.3.1 Low-temperature Solar Thermal Systems 2.5.3.2 Domestic Water Heating 2.5.3.3 Domestic Space Heating 2.5.3.4 Solar Cooking 2.5.3.5 Crop Drying 2.5.3.6 Space Cooling 2.5.3.7 Daylighting 2.5.3.8 Heating and Cooling System Design Considerations 2.5.4 Solar Electric Conversion and Applications 2.5.4.1 Solar thermo–electro–mechanical Conversion (Heat to Power) 2.5.4.1.1 Basic Rankine Cycle 2.5.4.2 Photovoltaic Conversion (Light to Power) 2.6 Solar Thermal Energy Storage 2.6.1 Sensible Heat Storage 2.6.2 Latent Heat Storage Summary Review Questions Chapter 3: Solar Thermal Energy Collectors 3.1 Types of Solar Collectors 3.1.1 Flat Plate Collectors 3.1.1.1 Flat Plate Air Collectors 3.1.1.2 Flat Plate Liquid Collectors 3.1.2 Concentrating Collectors 3.1.2.1 Stationary Concentrating Collectors 3.1.2.2 Tracking Concentrating Collectors 3.1.3 Comparison of Collectors 3.2 Configurations of Certain Practical Solar Thermal Collectors 3.2.1 Flat Plate Collectors 3.2.1.1 Liquid Flat Plate Collectors 3.2.1.2 Air Flat Plate Collectors 3.2.2 Glazed Flat Plate Collectors 3.2.3 Unglazed Flat Plate Solar Collectors 3.2.4 Unglazed Perforated Plate Collectors 3.2.5 Back-pass Solar Collectors 3.2.6 Batch Flat Plate Solar Thermal Collectors 3.2.7 Flat Plate Collectors with Flat Reflectors 3.2.8 Evacuated Tube Collectors 3.3 Material Aspects of Solar Collectors 3.3.1 Absorber 3.3.1.1 Absorptive Coatings 3.3.2 Glazing 3.3.2.1 Areas of Practical Applications Attentions 3.3.2.2 Glazing Materials 3.3.3 Insulation Shell 3.4 Concentrating Collectors 3.4.1 Compound Parabolic Solar Collectors 3.4.2 Fresnel Solar Thermal Collectors 3.4.3 Parabolic Trough Solar Thermal Collectors 3.4.4 Cylindrical Trough Solar Collectors 3.4.5 Parabolic Dish Systems 3.4.6 Heliostat Field Solar Collectors 3.4.6.1 Working of Practical Solar Heliostat 3.4.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the HeliostatSolar Tower Power Plant 3.4.6.2.1 Advantages 3.5 Parabolic Dish–Stirling Engine System 3.6 Working of Stirling or Brayton Heat Engine 3.7 Solar Collector Systems into Building Services 3.8 Solar Water Heating Systems 3.8.1 Active Solar Water Heating Systems 3.8.1.1 Parts of Water Heating Systems 3.8.2 Active Solar Space Heating 3.9 Passive Solar Water Heating Systems 3.9.1 Types of Passive Water Heaters 3.9.1.1 Batch System 3.9.1.2 Thermosiphon Systems 3.10 Applications of Solar Water Heating Systems 3.11 Active Solar Space Cooling 3.12 Solar Air Heating 3.13 Solar Dryers 3.13.1 Advantages 3.13.2 Limitations 3.14 Crop Drying 3.15 Space Cooling 3.16 Solar Cookers 3.16.1 Types of Solar Cookers 3.16.2 Advantages 3.16.3 Disadvantages 3.17 Solar Pond 3.17.1 Advantages of Solar Pond Summary Review Questions Chapter 4: Solar Cells 4.1 Need for Solar Cells 4.1.1 Components of a Solar Cell System 4.1.2 Key Elements of Silicon Solar Cell 4.1.2.1 Important Requirements of Solar Cell (Photovoltaic Cell) 4.1.3 Creating P-type and N-type Semiconductors 4.1.3.1 N-type Semiconductors 4.1.3.2 P-type Semiconductors 4.1.3.3 Fabrication of Silicon Solar Cell 4.2 Solar Cell Materials 4.2.1 Silicon 4.2.2 Thin Film 4.3 Practical Solar Cells 4.4 Functions of a Solar Cell 4.4.1 Main Components of Photovoltaic System 4.5 Theory of Solar Cell (Photovoltaic Cell) 4.5.1 Process of Photovoltaic Potential Development 4.5.1.1 Energy Band Diagrams of the p-type and n-type Crystals Before the Contact 4.5.1.2 Energy Band Diagram of the p–n Semiconductor Junction at the Final Equilibrium Condition 4.5.1.3 Energy Band Diagram of the p–n Semiconductor Junction Under Solar Excitation 4.5.2 Junction Current (IJ) 4.5.3 Solar Cell Performance (Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell) 4.5.4 I–V Characteristics of Solar Cells 4.5.4.1 Output Power 4.5.4.2 Maximum Output Power of the Cell 4.6 Efficiency of Solar Cells 4.6.1 Fill Factor 4.6.2 Factors Limiting the Efficiency of the Cell 4.7 Photovoltaic Panels (Series and Parallel Arrays) 4.7.1 Number of Solar Cell Required in Series 4.7.2 Number of Solar Cell in Parallel Strings 4.8 Application of Solar Cell Systems 4.8.1 Solar Water Pumps 4.8.2 Solar Vehicle 4.8.3 Solar Lanterns 4.8.4 Solar Panels on Spacecraft 4.8.5 Grid-connected Photovoltaic Power Systems 4.8.6 Cathodic Protection Systems 4.8.7 Electric Fences 4.8.8 Remote Lighting Systems 4.8.9 Telecommunications and Remote Monitoring Systems 4.8.10 Rural Electrification 4.8.11 Water Treatment Systems Summary Review Questions Chapter 5: Hydrogen Energy 5.1 Benefits of Hydrogen Energy 5.2 Hydrogen Production Technologies 5.2.1 Thermochemical Production Technologies 5.2.1.1 Steam Reforming 5.2.1.2 Partial Oxidation or Ceramic Membrane Reactor 5.2.1.3 Biomass Gasification and Pyrolysis 5.2.2 Electrolytic Production Technologies 5.2.2.1 Water Electrolysis 5.2.2.2 Steam Electrolysis 5.2.2.3 Photoelectrolysis 5.2.2.4 Thermochemical Water Splitting 5.2.2.5 By-product of Sodium or Potassium Chloride Electrolysis 5.2.2.6 Reversible Fuel Cells or Electrolysers 5.2.3 Photolytic Production Technologies 5.2.3.1 Photoelectrochemical Processes 5.2.3.2 Biological and Photobiological Processes 5.3 Hydrogen Energy Storage 5.3.1 Compressed Gas and Liquid Hydrogen Storage Tanks 5.3.2 Materials-based Storage 5.3.3 Methods of Hydrogen Energy Storage 5.3.3.1 Compression 5.3.3.2 Liquefied Hydrogen 5.3.3.3 Metal Hydrides 5.4 Use of Hydrogen Energy 5.5 Applications of Hydrogen Energy 5.5.1 At Home Sector 5.5.2 At Work Sector 5.5.3 At Transport and Industrial Sectors 5.6 Advantages of Hydrogen Energy 5.7 Disadvantages of Hydrogen Energy 5.8 Problems Associated with Hydrogen Energy Summary Review Questions Chapter 6: Wind Energy 6.1 Windmills 6.2 Wind Turbines 6.3 Energy Availability in the Wind 6.3.1 Wind Potential 6.3.2 Wind Characteristics 6.3.3 Wind into Electricity 6.4 Wind Resources 6.4.1 Worldwide Wind Energy Scenario in 2010 6.4.2 Wind Energy in India 6.5 Wind Turbine Site Selection 6.5.1 Turbine Height 6.5.2 Considerations and Guidelines for Site Selection 6.5.3 Wind Turbine Power Output Variation with Steady Wind Speed 6.5.4 Parts of a Wind Turbine 6.5.4.1 Blade Count 6.5.4.2 Blade Materials 6.6 Classification and Description of Wind Machines 6.6.1 Savonius Drag-type Vertical-axis Wind Turbines 6.6.1.1 Advantages of Savonius 6.6.1.2 Disadvantages of Savonius 6.6.2 Darrieus Lift-type Vertical-axis Machines 6.6.2.1 Advantages of Darrieus 6.6.2.2 Disadvantages of Darrieus 6.6.3 Advantages of Vertical-axis Wind Turbines (VAWT) 6.6.4 Disadvantages of Vertical-axis Wind Turbines (VAWT) 6.6.5 Horizontal-axis Wind Turbines 6.6.5.1 Giromill Wind Turbine 6.6.5.2 Dutch Windmills 6.6.5.3 Advantages of Horizontal-axis Wind Turbines 6.6.5.4 Disadvantages of Horizontal-axis Wind Turbines 6.7 Principles of Wind Energy Conversion (Aerodynamics) 6.7.1 Lift Force 6.7.2 Drag Force 6.7.3 Capturing Wind Power 6.8 Mathematical Model of Extraction of Energy from the Wind 6.9 Simple Wind Turbine Theory 6.9.1 Assumptions 6.9.2 Application of Conservation of Mass (Continuity Equation) 6.9.3 Condition for Maximum Performance Coefficient 6.9.4 Wind Speed and Pressure Variations in Ideal Wind Turbine 6.10 Characteristics of Windmill Rotors (Rotor Design) 6.10.1 Pitch 6.10.2 Tip-speed Ratio (TSR) 6.10.2.1 Significance of Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR) 6.10.2.2 Effect of the Number of Rotor Blades on the Tip-speed Tatio (TSR) 6.10.3 Solidity 6.10.4 Coefficient of Performance 6.10.5 Torque 6.11 Types of Generators Used With Wind Turbines 6.11.1 Induction Generator 6.11.2 Permanent Magnet Alternators 6.11.3 Synchronous Generators 6.11.4 DC Generators 6.11.5 Applications of Wind Turbines Summary Review Questions Chapter 7: Geothermal Energy 7.1 Geothermal Systems 7.2 Classifications 7.3 Geothermal Resource Utilization 7.3.1 Direct Use of Low Grade Geothermal Energy 7.3.2 Electricity Generation 7.3.3 Multi-purpose Total Energy Utilization of Geothermal Resources 7.4 Resource Exploration 7.4.1 Prospects of Geothermal Fields in India 7.5 Geothermal-Based Electric Power Generation 7.5.1 Dry Steam-based Geothermal Power Plants 7.5.2 Flash Geothermal Power Plants 7.5.2.1 Advantages 7.5.2.2 Disadvantages 7.5.3 Binary Cycle-based Geothermal Plants 7.5.4 Electrical and Mechanical Features 7.5.5 Operation of Geothermal Plants 7.6 Associated Problems 7.7 Environmental Effects 7.7.1 Gaseous and Particulate Emission 7.7.2 Land Pollution 7.7.3 Subsidence Effect 7.7.4 Seismic Hazards 7.7.5 Water Pollution 7.7.6 Biological Effects 7.7.7 Social Effects Summary Review Questions Chapter 8: Solid Wastes and Agricultural Refuse 8.1 Waste is Wealth 8.1.1 Incinerators 8.1.1.1 Process of Incineration 8.1.1.2 Advantages of Incineration 8.1.1.3 Disadvantages of incineration 8.1.2 Pyrolysis 8.1.2.1 Advantages of Pyrolysis 8.1.2.2 Disadvantages of Pyrolysis 8.1.2.3 Pyrolysis Versus Incineration 8.1.3 Anaerobic Digestion 8.1.4 Recycling 8.1.5 Bioenergy Conversion 8.2 Key Issues 8.3 Waste Recovery Management Scheme 8.3.1 Treatment 8.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Waste Recycling 8.4.1 Advantages of Waste Recycling 8.4.2 Disadvantages of Waste Recycling 8.4.3 Status of Municipal Solid Wastes Management in India 8.4.4 Tips on Reducing Waste and Conserving Resources (the Three R’s—Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle) 8.4.4.1 Reduce 8.4.4.2 Reuse 8.4.4.3 Recycle 8.5 Sources and Types of Wastes 8.6 Recycling of Plastics 8.6.1 Recycling of Plastics 8.6.2 Plastic Resin Identification Code 8.6.3 Benefits of Plastic Recycling 8.6.4 Thermal Depolymerization 8.6.4.1 Catalytic Pyrolysis of Waste Plastics 8.6.5 Plastic Waste to Oil Production in India 8.6.6 Waste Plastic to Electricity Generation 8.6.7 Advantages of Recycling of Plastics 8.6.8 Disadvantages of Recycling of Plastics Summary Review Questions Chapter 9: Biomass Energy 9.1 Biomass Production 9.1.1 Direct Methods 9.1.2 Indirect Methods 9.2 Energy Plantation 9.3 Biomass Gasification 9.3.1 Low Temperature Gasification 9.3.2 High Temperature Gasification 9.3.3 Composition and Properties of Producer Gas 9.3.4 Temperature of Gas 9.4 Theory of Gasification 9.5 Gasifier and their Classifications 9.6 Chemistry of Reaction Process in Gasification 9.7 Updraft Gasifiers 9.8 Downdraft Gasifier 9.9 Cross-Draft Gasifier 9.10 Fluidized Bed Gasification 9.10.1 Advantages and Benefits 9.10.1.1 Advantages 9.10.1.2 Benefits 9.11 Use of Biomass Gasifier 9.11.1 Liquid Fuels 9.12 Gasifier Biomass feed Characteristics 9.12.1 Energy Content and Bulk Density of Fuel 9.12.2 Moisture Content 9.12.3 Dust Content 9.12.4 Tar Content 9.12.5 Ash and Slagging Characteristics 9.12.6 Biomass Feed (Fuel) 9.13 Applications of Biomass Gasifiers 9.14 Cooling and Cleaning of Gas Summary Review Questions Chapter 10: Biogas Energy 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Biogas and its Composition 10.3 Anaerobic Digestion 10.3.1 Process Stages of Anaerobic Digestion 10.3.1.1 Hydrolysis 10.3.1.2 Acidogenesis 10.3.1.3 Acetogenesis 10.3.1.4 Methanogenesis 10.4 Biogas Production 10.4.1 Construction Parts of Biogas Plants 10.4.1.1 Mixing Tank 10.4.1.2 Digester Tank 10.4.1.3 Dome or Gas Holder 10.4.1.4 Inlet Chamber 10.4.1.5 Outlet Chamber 10.4.1.6 Gas Outlet Pipe and Valve 10.4.1.7 Foundation 10.4.2 Working of Biogas Plant 10.4.3 Types of Biogas Plants 10.4.3.1 Fixed Dome Type 10.4.3.1.1 Working Principle 10.4.3.1.2 Advantages 10.4.3.1.3 Disadvantages 10.4.3.2 Floating Type 10.4.3.2.1 Advantages 10.4.3.2.2 Disadvantages 10.4.4 Different Models of Biogas Plants 10.4.4.1 Types of Fixed Dome Biogas Plants 10.4.4.2 Types of Floating Drum Plants 10.5 Benefits of Biogas 10.6 Factors Affecting the Selection of a Particular Model of a Biogas Plant 10.7 Biogas Plant Feeds and their Characteristics 10.7.1 Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) Ratio 10.7.2 Advantages 10.7.3 Limitations 10.7.4 Uses Summary Review Questions Chapter 11: Tidal Energy 11.1 General 11.2 Tidal Energy Resource 11.3 Tidal Energy Availability 11.4 Tidal Power Generation in India 11.5 Leading Country in Tidal Power Plant Installation 11.6 Energy Availability in Tides 11.6.1 Calculation of Tidal Power 11.6.2 Tidal Stream Generator 11.7 Tidal power basin 11.7.1 Single-basin System 11.7.2 Two-basin Systems 11.7.3 Co-operating Two-basin Systems 11.8 Turbines for Tidal Power 11.8.1 Bulb-type turbine 11.8.2 Commercial Status of Tidal Stream Devices (as on 2009) 11.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Tidal Power 11.10 Problems Faced in Exploiting Tidal Energy Summary Review Questions Chapter 12: Sea Wave Energy 12.1 General 12.2 Motion in the Sea Waves 12.3 Power Associated with Sea Waves 12.3.1 Another Wave Power Formula 12.4 Wave Energy Availability 12.4.1 Wave Energy Availability in India 12.5 Devices for Harnessing Wave Energy 12.5.1 Float or Buoy Devices 12.5.2 Oscillating Water Column Devices 12.5.3 Pendulum System 12.5.4 TAPCHAN (Tapered Channel) 12.5.5 Salter’s Duck System 12.5.6 Offshore Wave Dragon System 12.5.7 Bristol Cylinder 12.5.8 Archimedes Wave Swing Devices 12.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wave Power 12.6.1 Advantages 12.6.2 Disadvantages 12.7 Key Issues Summary Review Questions Chapter 13: Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Principle of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 13.3 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Plants 13.3.1 Land-based Power Plant 13.3.2 Floating Power Plant 13.4 Basic Rankine Cycle and its Working 13.4.1 Selection of Working Fluids 13.5 Closed Cycle, Open Cycle, and Hybrid Cycle 13.5.1 Open-cycle OTEC 13.5.2 Closed-cycle OTEC 13.5.3 OTEC Hybrid Cycle 13.6 Carnot Cycle 13.7 Application of Otec in Addition to Produce Electricity 13.8 Advantages, Disadvantages and Benefits of Otec 13.8.1 Advantages 13.8.2 Disadvantages 13.8.3 Benefits as a Measure of the Value of OTEC Summary Review Questions Chapter 14: Fuel Cell 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Schematic of Fuel Cell 14.2.1 Anode 14.2.2 Cathode 14.2.3 Electrolyte 14.3 Basic Characteristics 14.3.1 Charge Carrier 14.3.2 Performance Degradation by Contamination 14.3.3 Fuels 14.3.4 Factors Affecting the Fuel Cell Performance 14.3.5 Fuel Reforming 14.4 Fuel Cell Functionality 14.4.1 Electrical Output 14.4.1.1 Output Voltage 14.4.1.2 Output Current 14.4.1.3 Output Power 14.5 Fuel Cells Versus Traditional Electricity Generation 14.6 Performances of Fuel Cells Versus Others 14.7 Fuel Cell Construction (Historical Development) 14.7.1 William Grove’s Fuel Cell 14.7.2 Hydrogen–Oxygen Fuel Cell 14.7.2.1 EMF of Fuel Cell 14.7.2.2 Moles–g mole and kg mole 14.7.2.3 Derivation of Ideal Fuel Cell Voltage 14.7.2.4 Effi ciency 14.7.2.5 Degradation of Fuel Cell Performance 14.7.2.6 Polarization 14.8 Types of Fuel Cells: Design 14.9 Schematic and Working of Different Types of Fuel Cell 14.9.1 Alkali Fuel Cells 14.9.2 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells 14.9.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells 14.9.4 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 14.9.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 14.10 Sources of Overvoltage in a Fuel Cell 14.10.1 Mixed Potential at Electrodes 14.10.2 Activation Losses 14.10.3 Ohmic Losses 14.10.4 Mass Transport Losses 14.11 Fuels for Fuel Cells 14.12 Series Parallel Connection of Fuel Cell 14.13 Advantages of Fuel Cell 14.14 Disadvantages of Fuel Cells Summary Review Questions Chapter 15: Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Power Generation 15.1 General 15.2 Electromechanical Energy Conversion Versus Mhd 15.3 MHD Generator and its Working 15.4 Principle and Performances 15.4.1 Open-circuit Voltage and Power Output 15.4.2 Maximum Power Output 15.5 MHD System Components 15.6 Plasma 15.6.1 Gas Plasma 15.6.2 Methods of Ionizing the Gas 15.6.3 Containment 15.6.4 Power Output 15.6.5 Efficiency 15.6.6 Operating Experience 15.7 Schematic Diagram and Working of Liquid Metal MHD 15.7.1 Working 15.7.2 Features and Liabilities 15.7.3 Advantages 15.7.4 Disadvantages 15.8 Types of Mhd System 15.8.1 Open-cycle System 15.8.2 Closed-cycle Liquid Metal System 15.8.3 Closed-cycle Plasma MHD System 15.9 Advantages of MHD System 15.10 Disadvantages of MHD System Summary Review Questions Chapter 16: Thermoelectric Converters 16.1 Basic Configuration of Thermoelectric Converters 16.1.1 Historical Developments 16.2 Major Heat Sources-Based Thermoelectric Generators 16.2.1 Fossil Fuel Generators 16.2.2 Solar Source Generators 16.2.3 Nuclear-fuelled Generators 16.3 Principles of Operation 16.3.1 Seebeck effect 16.3.1.1 Basic Metallic thermoelectric converter 16.3.1.2 Basic Semiconductor thermoelectric converter 16.3.2 Basic Theory and Operation 16.3.2.1 Figure of merit 16.3.2.2 Device efficiency 16.3.2.3 C auses of the Seebeck Effect 16.3.3 Peltier Effect 16.3.4 Thomson Effect 16.4 Thermoelectric Materials 16.4.1 Conventional Materials 16.4.2 New Materials 16.5 Analysis of a Concentrated Solar Thermoelectric Conversion 16.5.1 Arrangement of Semiconductor Thermoelectric Generator 16.5.2 Efficiency and Power Output 16.6 Thermoelectric Converter Modules and Applications 16.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 16.7.1 Advantages 16.7.2 Disadvantages 16.8 Recent Ongoing Development Summary Review Questions Chapter 17: Thermionic Converters 17.1 General 17.2 Thermionic Energy Converter 17.3 Working of Thermionic Generator 17.3.1 Fermi Level 17.3.2 Thermionic Work Function 17.3.2.1 Richardson’s Law 17.3.2.2 Measurement of Work Function 17.3.2.3 Work Functions and Richardson’s Constants for Various Materials 17.3.3 Inter-electrode Charge Distribution 17.3.4 Electron Saturation Current 17.3.5 Ion Saturation Current Density 17.3.6 Performance Analysis of Thermionic Converter 17.3.7 Other Efficiency Equations of a Thermionic Converter 17.4 Types of Thermionic Converters 17.4.1 Vacuum Thermionic Converter 17.4.2 Vapour Thermionic Converters 17.5 Material Development and Research 17.6 Applications Summary Review Questions Chapter 18: Concept of Energy Conservation and Energy Management 18.1 Introduction 18.1.1 Necessity of Energy Management 18.2 Concept of Energy Management 18.2.1 Wasted Energy in Electric Lamps 18.2.2 Sankey Diagram for a Filament Lamp 18.2.3 Benefits 18.2.4 Key Issues 18.2.5 Opportunities of Energy Management 18.2.5.1 Procedural Energy Management Opportunities 18.2.5.2 Equipment Modifications, Additions, or Replacement EMOS (Retrofit EMOS) 18.2.5.3 Research and Development and New Installation (R&D EMOS) 18.2.5.4 Resource or Fuel Substitution (Substitution EMOS) 18.2.5.5 Comparison of Energy Management Opportunities (EMOS) 18.3 Fundamental Principles of Energy Management 18.3.1 Review of Past Pattern of Energy Use 18.3.2 Review of Current Pattern of Energy Use 18.3.3 Improvement in Housekeeping and Maintenance 18.3.3.1 Proper or Optimal Control of Equipment and Appliances 18.3.3.2 Optimization of Excessive Capacity of Equipment and Appliances 18.3.3.3 Reduction in Non-essential Loads 18.3.4 Analysis of Energy Use 18.3.5 Economic Calculation 18.3.6 Material Substitution 18.3.7 Material Economy 18.3.8 Material Quality 18.3.9 Use More Efficient Equipment and Appliances 18.3.10 Employing Special Techniques to Reduce Losses 18.3.11 Use More Efficient Processes 18.3.12 Energy Containment 18.3.13 Aggregation of Energy Uses 18.3.14 Fuels and Energy Substitutions 18.3.15 Cascade Energy Use 18.3.16 Development of Simple and Highly Efficient Energy Conversion Principle 18.3.17 Development of Energy Storage System 18.4 Strategy for Energy Management 18.4.1 Decision to Undertake Program 18.4.2 Commitment by Management 18.4.3 Statement of Objectives 18.4.4 Database and Information Collection 18.4.5 Energy Audit 18.4.6 Computer Analysis and Simulation 18.4.6.1 Actively Interact and Control Operations 18.4.6.2 Analysis and Simulation 18.4.7 Energy Efficiency Analysis 18.4.8 Energy Economics 18.4.9 People’s Involvement 18.4.10 Implementation 18.4.11 Verification 18.5 Energy Savings Tips 18.6 Constraints and Considerations for Implementing Energy Conservation and Management Program Summary Review Questions Chapter 19: Energy Conservation and Management in Different Energy Activity Sector 19.1 General 19.2 Energy Measurement Systems in Industry 19.3 Energy Management with Electric Power Supply Systems 19.3.1 Reduction of Peak Demand or Maximum Demand 19.3.1.1 Peak Shaving or Load Shifting 19.3.1.2 Load Shedding 19.3.1.3 Peak Load Sharing 19.3.1.4 Power Factor Correction 19.3.1.5 Power Quality 19.3.1.6 Distributed Energy 19.4 Energy Management Opportunities with Lighting Systems 19.4.1 Efficacy of Light Lamps 19.4.1.1 Distinction between Efficiency and Efficacy 19.4.1.2 Efficacy of Different Types and Wattage Lamps 19.4.2 Factors Affecting Selection of Light Sources (Lamps) 19.4.3 Energy Management Opportunities in Lighting Systems 19.4.4 Energy Saving Tips with Light Sources 19.5 Energy Management Opportunities with Electric Motors 19.5.1 Energy Management Opportunities with Ceiling Fan Regulators 19.5.1.1 Ceiling Fans 19.5.1.2 Energy Savings by Replacing Conventional Resistance-type Regulator by an Electronic Regulator 19.6 Energy Management Opportunities with Household Electric Appliance 19.6.1 Energy Saving Tips with Household Appliances 19.7 Energy Management Opportunity with Hvac Systems 19.7.1 HVAC Systems 19.7.1.1 Heating System 19.7.1.2 Cooling System 19.7.1.3 Ventilation 19.7.1.4 Heat Pumps 19.7.1.5 Vent Duct 19.7.2 General Principles of Energy Managementin HVAC Systems 19.8 Energy Saving Tips for Other Industrial Processes Summary Review Questions Appendix A: Multiple Choice Questions Chapter Wise Appendix B: Multiple Choice Objective Questions on Energy Systems Appendix C: Terms and Definition Bibliography Index