Neurocognitive Development: Normative Development, 173

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This is one of a two-volume work on neurocognitive development, focusing separately on normative and non-normative development. The normative volume focuses on neurology, biology, genetics, and psychology of normative cognitive development. It covers the development of intellectual abilities, visual perception, motor function, language, memory, attention, executive function, social cognition, learning abilities, and affect and behavior. The book identifies when and how these functions develop, the genetics and neurophysiology of their operation, and their evaluation and assessment in clinical practice. This book will serve as a comprehensive reference to researchers in cognitive development in neuroscience, psychology, and medicine, as well as to clinicians and allied health professionals focused on developmental disabilities (child neurologists, pediatric neuropsychologists, child psychiatrists, speech and language therapists, and occupational therapists.) Front Cover Neurocognitive Development: Normative Development Copyright Available titles Foreword Preface Contributors Contents Section I: Introduction to neurodevelopmental disabilities Chapter 1: Description and classification of neurodevelopmental disabilities Classification Systems for NDDs Benefits and Challenges Related to the Use of Classification Systems The Diagnosis of NDDs: A Challenging Process Conclusion References Chapter 2: Neurodevelopmental and cognitive disabilities: Historical overview Introduction Developmental Sciences 1900-50 Deinstitutionalization, Diagnosis, Classification, and Epidemiology Cognitive Science, Genetics, and Neuroimaging Conclusion References Chapter 3: Ethical views and considerations Introduction Ethical Considerations of Researchers Conducting Pediatric Study in Healthy Children An Example of an fMRI Study on Healthy School Children MRI familiarization at school fMRI imaging protocol Results and Perspectives Ethical Considerations Conclusion References Section II: Biological basis of typical neurodevelopment Chapter 4: Neurogenesis, neuronal migration, and axon guidance Neurulation and Formation of the Primary Brain Vesicles and Ventricular Zone Neurogenesis and Neuronal Proliferation Dynamics of Neurogenesis Regulation of Neurogenesis Intrinsic Factors Transcriptional regulators Epigenetic modifications and post-translational regulation Extrinsic Factors Signaling pathways Environmental cues Neurotransmitters Adult Neurogenesis Programmed Cell Death in Neuronal Development Neuronal Migration Radial Migration: Multipolar Migration, Somal Translocation and Locomotion Tangential Migration Terminal Translocation Regulation of Neuronal Migration Intrinsic Factors Transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and epigenetic regulation of neural migration Small GTP binding proteins, protein kinases Extrinsic Factors Extracellular matrix proteins Cell-cell-adhesion molecules Others: Signaling pathways and axonal guidance molecules Folding and Gyrification of Human Cortex Axon Guidance and Pathfinding Conclusion References Chapter 5: Development of neuronal circuits: From synaptogenesis to synapse plasticity Synapse Formation: A Complex Problem How Does an Axonal Terminal Choose Its Synapse Location and Identity? Process of Synapse Formation Experience Dependent Modulation of Synapse Formation Synaptic Plasticity in Mature Synapses Synaptogenesis and Plasticity in Neurodevelopmental Disorders References Further reading Section III: Plasticity, vulnerability and evolutionary constraints of the developing brain Chapter 6: A conceptual framework for plasticity in the developing brain Introduction Definitions of Brain Plasticity A Conceptual Framework of Early Brain Plasticity Mechanisms and constraints of early brain plasticity Mechanism of neuronal plasticity Constraints in the developing brain Temporal associations (critical and sensitive periods) Functions of early brain plasticity Development/maturation through learning Compensation/adaptation following injury or sensory deprivation Clinical Contexts Genetic disorders Prematurity Epilepsy Perinatal stroke Intervention-related plasticity Enhanced vulnerability Concluding Remarks References Chapter 7: Resilience Introduction Definition of Resilience Developmental Psychopathology Outline of the Chapter Neurobiology and Resilient Functioning Stress Response Systems Genetics Psychosocial Factors Conclusion and Future Directions References Chapter 8: Critical periods of brain development Introduction What Are Critical Periods? Key Critical Periods of Sensory Systems Ocular dominance Amblyopia and stereopsis Auditory processing and frequency tuning Spatial hearing and binaural processing How Are Critical Periods Regulated? Local regulation of cortical plasticity Neuromodulation Timing of Critical Periods: Can CP Plasticity Be Extended, Limited, or Reactivated? Extending critical periods Premature closing of critical periods Reactivation of CP plasticity in the adult brain Concluding Remarks References Chapter 9: The vulnerability of the immature brain Introduction Evidence for a Vulnerability of the Developing Brain Cognitive outcome pattern after an early brain lesion The fundamental basis of the Hebbian learning model that relies on synaptogenesis Vulnerability and synaptic homeostasis Vulnerability of Immature Brain Among Species Vulnerability and immaturity in mammals: Not always evidence Vulnerability of neural progenitor cells in neocortex Vulnerability and Inherited Constraints of Cerebral Networks in the Developing Human Brain Inherited structural constraints in the developing brain Functional connectivity in the developing brain: The new face of vulnerability Conclusion References Chapter 10: Development of handedness, anatomical and functional brain lateralization Introduction Developmental Course of Anatomical Asymmetries Developmental Course of Functional Asymmetries of Language Networks Developmental Course of Functional Asymmetries of Visuospatial Networks Development of Manual Asymmetries and Relationships With Language and Visuospatial Lateralization Through Development Conclusion References Section IV: Neuroscientific basis of typical functional neurodevelopment Chapter 11: Intellectual abilities Definition of Intelligence Typical Development of Intellectual Abilities Evaluation of Intellectual Abilities Woodcok-Johnson IV Beyond the Conventional Testing Paradigm Neurometrics References Chapter 12: Visual development Introduction Outline of Visual Processing Neurobiologic Model of Infant Visual Development Subcortical and cortical visual systems Dorsal and ventral streams Development of Visual Acuity, Contrast Sensitivity, Refraction, and Focusing Visual acuity and contrast sensitivity Development of focusing ability (accommodation) and refraction Hyperacuity Developing Cortical Selectivity for Orientation and Motion More Complex Cortical Motion Processing Global motion processing Processing of global static form and global motion compared Development of Binocularity and 3D Vision Development of binocularity Development of 3-D shape and depth perception Segmentation and Figure-Ground Visual Face Processing Development of Color Vision Development of Action Systems Action modules in the dorsal stream Action systems early in life: Head and eye movements linked to visual attention Optokinetic nystagmus and smooth pursuit eye movements Visually guided reaching and grasping ``End-state´´ planning of actions Action modules for locomotion Development of Attention and Executive Function Development of Visuospatial Localization and Spatial Memory Abnormalities and Plasticity of Visual Development Binocularity and strabismus Amblyopia and plasticity Cerebral visual impairment Dorsal stream vulnerability Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 13: The development of auditory functions Embryology of the Peripheral Auditory System Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear Development of the Central Auditory System Measuring the Peripheral Auditory System in Infants Development of Auditory Perception Auditory detection Auditory discrimination Auditory identification Auditory temporal processing Auditory temporal integration Auditory temporal resolution Auditory temporal sequencing Binaural auditory processing Binaural interaction Sound localization Binaural integration Auditory streaming Conclusion References Chapter 14: Motor functions Definition of Motor Function, Motor Skills, and Praxis Motor function and motor skills Praxis Typical Development of Motor and Praxis Abilities Early motor development Integration of motor- and praxis development Evaluation of Motor Function and Praxis Evaluation of motor function Evaluation of praxis Conclusion References Chapter 15: Typical language development Introduction Theoretical Approaches to Language Acquisition Newborns Speech Perception Abilities Broad-based, universal abilities Abilities shaped by prenatal experience Early Phoneme Perception and the Attunement to the Native Language Segmentation and Word Learning Segmenting continuous speech Attaching meaning to word forms The Beginnings of Grammar Language Development in Multilinguals Conclusions Acknowledgment References Chapter 16: Literacy acquisition: Reading development Introduction Emergent Literacy Early Literacy Conventional Literacy Developmental Neural Changes Underlying Reading Acquisition Conclusion References Chapter 17: Memory: Normative development of memory systems Introduction Development of Short-Term and Working Memory Working memory in infants Development of working memory from childhood to adulthood Development of Nondeclarative Memory Simple classic conditioning Procedural memory Perceptual priming Conceptual priming Development of Declarative Memory Early declarative memory abilities Development of semantic memory Development of episodic memory Conclusions and Future Directions Working memory Nondeclarative memory Declarative memory Interaction between memory systems References Chapter 18: Developing attention in typical children related to disabilities Introduction Methods of Examining Brain Changes Anatomy Structural images Task-related functional imaging Resting-state imaging Brain Networks of Attention Alerting Orienting Executive attention Individual Differences Network scores Molecular mechanisms Genes and development Theory of mind (ToM) Deficits of Attention Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Acknowledgments References Further reading Chapter 19: Executive functions Definition of Executive Functions Development of Executive Functions in Children Infancy (0-2 years) Preschool period (2-5 years of age) Middle childhood (6-11 years of age) Speed of processing and developmental improvements in EFs Evaluation of Executive Functioning in Children References Chapter 20: Learning abilities Definition of Learning Types of Learning and Their Development in Children Repetition-based learning: Habituation as a nonassociative-based learning Behavioral perspective Developmental perspective Neurophysiologic perspective Associative learning Classical and operant conditioning Developmental perspective More complex forms of associative learning Associative learning in categorization Generalization of associative learning Associative learning in language acquisition The impact of context for associative learning Associative learning as an essential building block of learning and memory How to evaluate learning System Biology of Learning Molecular biology of learning Structural mechanisms of learning Conclusion References Chapter 21: Social cognition Introduction Development of Social Cognition in Children Social cognition emerges as a result of a developmental cascade Sociocognitive and global development are mutually dependent Sociocognitive development is driven by biologic processes Sociocognitive development is subject to environmental influence Sociocognitive development is protracted and continues across the lifespan Social Cognition Assessment in Children Social cognition cannot always be inferred from everyday social behavior Diverse cognitive deficits can lead to the same manifestation of social dysfunction Distinct conditions present unique sociocognitive profiles Subcomponents of a sociocognitive ability may not be uniformly affected within a single condition Sociocognitive assessment must be developmentally appropriate Sociocognitive assessment should rely on measures that have good psychometric properties Conclusion References Chapter 22: The role of cerebellum in the child neuropsychological functioning Introduction General Anatomy Cerebellum and Cognition The Universal Cerebellar Tranform (UCT) Hypothesis and Internal Models Cerebellar Somatotopy and Functional Organization Cerebellar Development Cerebellum and Specific Cognitive Functions Verbal working memory and articulatory subvocal rehearsal Language Time Other functions Cerebellum and Eye Movements Cerebellar Cognitive Associations During Typical Development and in Subjects Born Preterm Cerebellar Pathology in Children and Cognitive Development Cerebellar malformations and dysplasias (Table 22.1) Cerebellar agenesis Ataxias Pediatric ataxias (Table 22.1) Overview of the neuropsychologic profile in ataxias in adults Cerebellar tumors (Table 22.1) Cerebellar pilocytic astrocytomas or other benign cerebellar tumors treated by surgery only Medulloblastoma and other cerebellar tumors (treated by surgery, generally associated with radiotherapy and chemotherapy) Cerebellar cysts Other acquired pediatric cerebellar lesions: Stroke, traumatic brain injury (Table 22.1) Cerebellar stroke Traumatic brain injury Cerebellar mutism syndrome/posterior fossa syndrome (Table 22.1) Cerebellum and Neurodevelopmental Disorders Cerebellum and autism Cerebellum and developmental dyslexia The Cerebellar Cognitive Affective Syndrome (CCAS) Summary of the Topic and New Debatable Concepts Motor and cognitive cerebellum Functional organization of the cerebellum and anatomo-functional associations The cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome (CCAS) UCT and common components in cerebellar motor and neuropsychologic deficits Learning, and cerebellar damage in children and in adults Environment, remediation, rehabilitation Conclusion Ackowledgment References Section V: Etiologies of neurodevelopmental disorders Chapter 23: Genetic mechanisms of neurodevelopmental disorders Introduction-Historic Perspective and Overview Role of Chromosomal Microarray Impact and Insight From Copy Number Variation Variably Penetrant CNVs Counseling Considerations for CNVs Next-Generation Sequencing Technology The De Novo Paradigm for Neurodevelopmental Disease Insights Into Disease Mechanism Gained From De Novo Variation Recessive Disease Current Limitations of NGS in Neurodevelopmental Disorders Role of Multifactorial or Complex Inheritance in Neurodevelopmental Disorders Insights From Genome-Wide Association Studies Role of Normal Population Variation in Neurodevelopmental Disease Impact of Common Variation on Rare Monogenic Neurodevelopmental Disorders Genetic Architecture for Neurodevelopmental Disease Is a Combination of Rare and Common Variation Gene-Environment Interactions New Technologies and the Practical Application to Clinic Today Conclusion References Chapter 24: The effects of sex on prevalence and mechanisms underlying neurodevelopmental disorders Introduction Sex Differences Within Disorders Autism spectrum disorder Intellectual disability Communication disorders Language disorder or specific language impairment Speech sound disorder Childhood-onset fluency disorder (stuttering) Specific learning disability Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder Epilepsy Gilles de la Tourette syndrome Comorbidity Factors Underlying Sex Differences Dimorphism in typical development Cognition Problematic behaviors Hormonal factors Potential interactions between risk factors and sex Genetic factors Environmental insult and injury Future Directions References Chapter 25: Impact of prematurity on neurodevelopment Introduction Normal Structural and Functional Brain Maturation A brief overview of the timeline of the maturation processes Electroencephalographic monitoring of functional brain development Properties of developing networks Endogenous generators Impact of Prematurity on Structural and Functional Brain Development and Maturation Hemorrhagic damage Periventricular leukomalacia Trophic and maturation disturbances Impact of Prematurity on the Motor System Structural maturation of the motor system Functional maturation of the motor system Impact of the prematurity on motor functions Cerebral palsy Noncerebral palsy motor impairment Impact of Prematurity on the Neurosensory Systems The somatosensory system Structural maturation Functional maturation Impact of prematurity The chemosensory systems Structural maturation of the olfactory and taste systems Functional maturation of the olfactory and taste systems Impact of prematurity The vestibular and auditory systems Structural maturation of the auditory system Functional maturation of the auditory system Impact of prematurity The visual system Structural maturation of the visual system Functional maturation of the visual system Impact of prematurity on the visual system Impact of Prematurity on the Cognitive System Maturation of the cognitive system Impact of prematurity on cognitive functions An example of how the perturbations of building of linguistic networks leads to consequent deficiencies in prematurity Impact of Prematurity on the Neurovegetative System Conclusion References Chapter 26: Pregnant women, prescription, and fetal risk Introduction Why Would the Fetus be at Risk? Function and histology Transfer mechanisms Passive diffusion Active transport Other mechanisms Pregnancy Timeline and Fetal Risk Teratogenicity Fetal risk Neonatal risk Dangerous Drugs During Pregnancy Drugs associated with teratogenicity Drugs associated with a fetal risk Drugs of Specific Interest for Neurodevelopment Diethylstilbestrol Valproic acid Antidepressants What Should Be Done to Limit Risk? Prescribing to pregnant women Studying fetal risk for novel drugs Ex vivo model In vitro model In vivo model Informing practitioners References Chapter 27: Effects of prenatal alcohol and cannabis exposure on neurodevelopmental and cognitive disabilities Introduction Alcohol and Pregnancy Epidemiology Prenatal alcohol exposure and brain development Neurobehavioral deficits associated with prenatal alcohol exposure FASD and mental health Breastfeeding and alcohol Conclusion Cannabis and Pregnancy Effects of cannabis exposure during pregnancy Cannabis and breastfeeding Mechanisms of cannabis effects of neuro and cognitive development Conclusion Implications References Chapter 28: Maternal infections Introduction Physiopathology of Congenital Infection Review by Infectious Agent Cytomegalovirus Epidemiology Diagnosis Antenatal diagnosis Postnatal diagnosis Specific treatment Antenatal treatment Postnatal treatment Neurodevelopmental outcome Toxoplasmosis Epidemiology Diagnosis Antenatal diagnosis Postnatal diagnosis Specific treatment Antenatal Postnatal Neurodevelopmental outcome Rubella Epidemiology Diagnosis Antenatal diagnosis Postnatal diagnosis Specific treatment Antenatal Postnatal Neurodevelopmental outcome Syphilis Epidemiology Diagnosis Antenatal findings Postnatal findings Neurologic manifestations Pathology and neuroimaging findings Specific treatment Antenatal Postnatal Neurodevelopmental outcome Herpes Epidemiology Diagnosis Antenatal findings Postnatal findings Neuroimaging findings Specific treatment Pregnant women Newborn Neurodevelopmental outcome Zika Epidemiology Diagnosis Antenatal diagnosis Postnatal diagnosis Specific treatment Neurodevelopmental outcome HIV Epidemiology Diagnosis Antenatal findings Infant findings Imaging findings Specific treatment Antenatal Postnatal Neurodevelopmental outcome Varicella Epidemiology Diagnosis Antenatal findings Postnatal findings Specific treatment Neurodevelopmental outcome Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) Epidemiology Diagnosis Antenatal findings Postnatal findings Specific treatment Neurodevelopmental outcome References Chapter 29: Environmental toxic agents: The impact of heavy metals and organochlorides on brain development Introduction11Abbreviations used in the chapter are listed at the end of the chapter before References section. Neuropsychologic Impairments in Association With Environmental Contaminant Exposure Lead-related neurodevelopmental impairments Methylmercury-related neuropsychologic impairments PCB-related neuropsychologic impairments The Action Mechanisms of Environmental Contaminants Neuropathologic damage Alterations in neurotransmission Endocrine-disrupting mechanism Future Perspective: MRI as a Novel and Powerful Tool References Further reading Chapter 30: The effects of socio-affective environment Introduction: Nature/Nurture Dilemma and Bonfenbrenner's Ecologic Perspective on Early Development Sensitive periods The need for transcultural validity in developmental research Clinical Evidence of the Effects of Socio-Affective Environment on Mental Development Disentangling SES and Poverty Exposure to Stressful Events or Violence/Abuse Comparative effects of abuse and neglect in regard to other risk factors of attachment disorganization Affective Deprivation: New Data From the Bucharest Study; the Reactive Attachment Disorder Category (RAD) and the Descri Prematurity and Developmental Risk: Detecting Social Withdrawal Behavior in Infancy. Lessons From Longitudinal Cohort Studies The Prader-Willi Syndrome as a Paradigmatic Situation to Understand Developmental Psychopathology Autism Spectrum Disorders: New Insights Stemming From Both Developmental and Interventional Research Intermodal matching, affect attunement, audiovisual synchrony in infants with ASD A Growing Number of Gene-Environment Effects on Development Are Now Identified: Lessons From Attachmen Therapeutic approaches Conclusion References Further reading Chapter 31: Pediatric traumatic brain injury and abusive head trauma Introduction Incidence and Mortality Mild Pediatric TBI Moderate and Severe Pediatric TBI Neuroimaging Outcome after Pediatric TBI Overall level of disability Posttraumatic epilepsy Sensorimotor impairments Olfactory disorders Visual, oculomotor and vestibulo-ocular impairments Endocrine deficits Sleep-wake disturbances Fatigue Cognitive deficits General overview Overall intellectual ability and its components Language and communication Visual-spatial skills Attention Memory Executive functions Social cognition Behavioral and psychological/psychiatric disorders Academic achievement Participation Health-related quality of life Long-term outcome (adulthood) Factors Associated with Outcomes Following Childhood TBI Specificities of the ``shaken baby syndrome´´ (SBS) and abusive head trauma (AHT) Definition, incidence, and diagnosis Long-term outcomes following AHT Interventions Following Pediatric TBI General principles Rehabilitation and treatment of specific deficits (see Chapters 21 and 26 of Volume 174) Swallowing and communication disorders Cognitive deficits Behavioral disorders Support, education, and interventions with families/caregivers Management of mild TBI Conclusion References Chapter 32: Ischemic sequelae and other vascular diseases Introduction Profile of Perinatal and Childhood Strokes Intellectual abilities Language Visual-spatial ability Executive function Behavioral and social functioning Cognitive Profile of Specific Cerebrovascular Conditions in Children Congenital heart disease Moyamoya Sickle cell disease Conclusion References Back Cover