Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences

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Cover Page Pat Title Page Copyright Page Brief Contents Contents PREFACE OVERVIEW OF TEXT ORGANIZATION OF TEXT WRITING STYLE PEDAGOGICAL AIDS NEW TO THIS EDITION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CONTACT US ABOUT THE AUTHORS Chapter 1: Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method Chapter Overview 1.1: Introduction to Research Methodology Why Take A Research Methods Course? Other Reasons for Taking a Research Methods Course 1.2: Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge The Method of Tenacity The Method of Intuition The Method of Authority The Rational Method The Empirical Method Summary 1.3: The Scientific Method The Steps of the Scientifi c Method Other Elements of the Scientific Method Science versus Pseudoscience 1.4: The Research Process Step 1: Find a Research Idea: Select a Topic and Search the Literature to Find an Unanswered Question Step 2: Form a Hypothesis and a Prediction Step 3: Determine How You Will Defi ne and Measure Your Variables Step 4: Identify and Select the Participants or Subjects for the Study Step 5: Select a Research Strategy Step 6: Select a Research Design Step 7: Conduct the Study Step 8: Evaluate the Data Step 9: Report the Results Step 10: Refine or Reformulate Your Research Idea Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 2: Research Ideas Chapter Overview 2.1: Getting Started Pick a Topic in Which You Are Interested Do Your Homework Keep an Open Mind Focus, Focus, Focus Take One Step at a Time 2.2: Finding a General Topic Area Common Sources of Research Topics Common Mistakes in Choosing a Research Topic 2.3: Finding and Using Background Literature Primary and Secondary Sources The Purpose of a Literature Search 2.4: Conducting a Literature Search Starting Points Using Online Databases Using PsycINFO Beginning a Literature Search The Process of Conducting a LiteratureSearch Searching Forward Taking Notes 2.5: Finding an Idea for a Research Study and Converting the Idea into a Hypothesis and a Prediction Find Suggestions for Future Research Modify or Extend an Existing Study—Critical Reading Combine or Contrast Existing Results Converting a Research Idea into a Hypothesis and Prediction 2.6: Reading and Understanding a Research Article Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 3: Defining and Measuring Variables Chapter Overview 3.1: An Overview of Measurement 3.2: Constructs and Operational Definitions Theories and Constructs Operational Definitions Limitations of Operational Definitions Using Operational Definitions 3.3: Validity and Reliability of Measurement Validity of Measurement Reliability of Measurement The Relationship Between Reliability and Validity 3.4: Scales of Measurement The Nominal Scale The Ordinal Scale Interval and Ratio Scales Selecting a Scale of Measurement 3.5: Modalities of Measurement Self-Report Measures Physiological Measures Behavioral Measures 3.6: Other Aspects of Measurement Multiple Measures Sensitivity and Range Effects Artifacts: Experimental Bias and Participant Reactivity Selecting a Measurement Procedure Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 4: Ethics in Research Chapter Overview 4.1: Introduction Ethical Concerns Throughout the Research Process The Basic Categories of Ethical Responsibility 4.2:Ethical Issues and Human Participants in Research Historical Highlights of Treatment of Human Participants American Psychological Association Guidelines The Institutional Review Board 4.3: Ethical Issues and Nonhuman Subjects in Research Historical Highlights of Treatment of Nonhuman Subjects American Psychological Association Guidelines The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee 4.4: Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity Fraud in Science Plagiarism Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 5: Selecting Research Participants Chapter Overview 5.1: Introduction Populations and Samples Representative Samples Sample Size Sampling Basics 5.2: Probability Sampling Methods Simple Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Sampling Combined-Strategy Sampling A Summary of Probability Sampling Methods 5.3: Nonprobability Sampling Methods Convenience Sampling Quota Sampling Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 6: Research Strategies and Validity Chapter Overview 6.1: Quantitative and Qualitative Research 6.2: Strategies for Quantitative Research The Descriptive Research Strategy Relationships Between Variables The Correlational Research Strategy: Measuring Two Variables for Each Individual Comparing Two or More Sets of Scores: The Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Nonexperimental Research Strategies The Experimental Research Strategy The Quasi-Experimental Research Strategy The Non experimental Research Strategy Research Strategy Summary Data Structures and Statistical Analysis Summary 6.3: Internal and External Validity External Validity Internal Validity Validity and the Quality of a Research Strategy 6.4: Threats to External Validity Category 1: Generalizing Across Participants or Subjects Category 2: Generalizing Across Features of a Study Category 3: Generalizing Across Features of the Measures 6.5: Threats to Internal Validity Extraneous Variables Confounding Variables Extraneous Variables, Confounding Variables, and Internal Validity Environmental Variables: General Threats to Internal Validity for All Studies Individual Differences: Threats to Internal Validity for Studies Comparing Different Groups Time-Related Variables: Threats to Internal Validity for Studies Comparing One Group over Time 6.6: More About Internal and External Validity Balancing Internal and External Validity Artifacts: Threats to Both Internal and External Validity Exaggerated Variables Validity and Individual Research Strategies 6.7: Research Strategies, Research Designs, and Research Procedures Research Strategies Research Designs Research Procedures Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 7: The Experimental Research Strategy Chapter Overview 7.1: Cause-and-Effect Relationships Terminology for the Experimental Research Strategy Causation and the Third-Variable Problem Causation and the Directionality Problem Controlling Nature 7.2: Distinguishing Elements of an Experiment Manipulation Control 7.3: Dealing with Extraneous Variables Control by Holding Constant or Matching Control by Randomization Comparing Methods of Control Advantages and Disadvantages of Control Methods 7.4: Control Groups No-Treatment Control Groups Placebo Control Groups 7.5: Manipulation Checks 7.6: Increasing External Validity: Simulation and Field Studies Simulation Field Studies Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation and Field Studies Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 8: Experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design Chapter Overview 8.1: Introduction to Between-Subjects Experiments Review of the Experimental Research Strategy Characteristics of Between-Subjects Designs Advantages and Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs 8.2: Individual Differences Confounding Variables Other Confounding Variables Equivalent Groups 8.3: Limiting Confounding by Individual Differences Random Assignment (Randomization) Matching Groups (Matched Assignment) Holding Values Constantor Restricting Range of Variability Summary and Recommendations 8.4: Individual Differences and Variability Differences Between Treatments and Variance Within Treatments Minimizing Variance Within Treatments Summary and Recommendations 8.5: Other Threats to Internal Validity of Between-Subjects Designs Differential Attrition Communication Between Groups 8.6: Applications and Statistical Analyses of Between-Subjects Designs Two-Group Mean Difference Comparing Means for More Than Two Groups Comparing Proportions for Two or More Groups Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 9: Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design Chapter Overview 9.1: Introduction to Within-Subjects Experiments Characteristics of Within-Subjects Designs Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs 9.2: Threats to Internal Validity for Within-Subjects Designs Separating Time-Related Factors and Order Effects Order Effects as a Confounding Variable 9.3: Dealing with Time-Related Threats and Order Effects Controlling Time Switch to a Between-Subjects Design Counterbalancing: Matching Treatments with Respect toTime Limitations of Counter balancing 9.4: Applications and Statistical Analyses of Within-Subjects Designs Two-Treatment Designs Multiple-Treatment Designs 9.5: Comparing Within-Subjects and Between-Subjects Designs Matched-Subject Designs Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 10: The Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Strategies: Nonequivalent Group, Pre–Post, and Developmental Designs Chapter Overview 10.1: Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies The Structure of Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs 10.2: Between-Subjects Nonexperimentaland Quasi-Experimental Designs: Nonequivalent Group Designs Threats to Internal Validity for Nonequivalent Group Desi The Differential Research Design The Posttest-Only Nonequivalent Control Group Design The Pretest–Posttest Nonequivalent Control Group Design 10.3: Within-Subjects Non experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs:Pre–Post Designs Threats to Internal Validity for Pre–Post Designs The One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design The Time-Series Design Single-Case Applications of Time-Series Designs 10.4: Developmental Research Designs The Cross-Sectional Developmental Research Design The Longitudinal Developmental Research Design 10.5: Terminology in Nonexperimental, Quasi-experimental, and Developmental Designs Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 11: Factorial Designs Chapter Overview 11.1: Introduction to Factorial Designs Experimental Factorial Designs 11.2: Main Effects and Interactions Identifying Interactions 11.3: More About Interactions Alternative Definitions of anInteraction Interpreting Main Effects and Interactions Independence of Main Effects and Interactions 11.4: Types of Factorial Designs Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs Experimental and Non experimentalor Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies Pretest–Posttest Control Group Designs Higher-Order Factorial Designs 11.5: Applications of Factorial Designs Expanding and Replicating a Previous Study Reducing Variance in Between-Subjects Designs Evaluating Order Effects in Within-Subjects Designs Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 12: The Correlational Research Strategy Chapter Overview 12.1: An Introduction to Correlational Research 12.2: The Data for a Correlational Study Measuring Relationships Evaluating Relationships for Non-numerical Scores Comparing Correlational, Experimental, and Differential Research 12.3: Applications of the Correlational Strategy Prediction Reliability and Validity Evaluating Theories Interpreting a Correlation 12.4: Strengths and Weaknesses of the Correlational Research Strategy 12.5: Relationships with More than Two Variables Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 13: The Descriptive Research Strategy Chapter Overview 13.1: An Introduction to Descriptive Research 13.2: The Observational Research Design Behavioral Observation Content Analysis and Archival Research Types of Observation and Examples Strengths and Weaknesses of Observational Research Designs 13.3: The Survey Research Design Types of Questions Constructing a Survey Selecting Relevant and Representative Individuals Administering a Survey Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research 13.4: The Case Study Design Applications of the Case Study Design Strengths and Weaknesses of the Case Study Design Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 14: Single-Subject Research Designs Chapter Overview 14.1: Introduction Evaluating the Results from a Single-Subject Study 14.2: Phases and Phase Changes Level, Trend, and Stability Changing Phases Visual Inspection Techniques 14.3: The ABAB Reversal Design Limitations of the ABAB Design Variations on the ABAB Design: Creating More Complex Phase-Change Designs 14.4: Multiple-Baseline Designs Rationale for the Multiple-Baseline Design Strengths and Weaknesses of the Multiple-Baseline Design 14.5: Other Single-Subject Designs Dismantling, or Component-Analysis, Design The Changing-Criterion Design The Alternating-Treatments Design 14.6: General Strengths and Weaknesses of Single-Subject Designs Advantages of Single-Subject Designs Disadvantages of Single-Subject Designs Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 15: Statistical Evaluationof Data Chapter Overview 15.1: The Role of Statistics in the Research Process Planning Ahead Statistics Terminology 15.2: Descriptive Statistics Frequency Distributions Measures of Central Tendency Measures of Variability Describing Interval and Ratio Data (Numerical Scores) Describing Non-numerical Data from Nominal and Ordinal Scales of Measurement Using Graphs to Summarize Data Correlations Regression Multiple Regression 15.3: Inferential Statistics Hypothesis Tests Reporting Results from a Hypothesis Test Errors in Hypothesis Testing Factors that Influence the Outcome ofa Hypothesis Test Supplementing Hypothesis Tests with Measures of Effect Size 15.4: Examples of Hypothesis Tests Comparing Groups of Scores: Statistical Tests for the Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Nonexperimental Research Strategies Tests for Mean Differences Comparing Proportions Evaluating Relationships: Statistical Tests for the Correlational Research Strategy 15.5: Special Statistics for Research The Spearman-Brown Formula The Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 Cronbach’s Alpha Cohen’s Kappa Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources Chapter 16: Writing an APA-Style Research Report Chapter Overview 16.1: The Goal of a Research Report 16.2: General APA Guidelines for Writing Style and Format Some Elements of Writing Style Guidelines for Typing or Word Processing Manuscript Pages 16.3: The Elements of an APA-Style Research Report Title Page Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion References Tables and Figures Appendix Conference Presentations: Papers and Posters 16.4: Submitting a Manuscript for Publication 16.5: Writing a Research Proposal Why Write a Research Proposal? How to Write a Research Proposal Chapter Summary Key Words Exercises Learning Activities Web Resources A Random Number Tableand Instruction B Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables C Instructions for Using SPSS D Sample APA-Style Research Report Manuscript for Publication GLOSSARY REFERENCES NAME INDEX SUBJECT INDEX A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y