Mental health and well-being in animals

Description

Cover Mental Health and Well-being in Animals, 2 nd Edition Copyright Content Contributors List 1 Mental Health in Animals: A Veterinary Behaviorist’s View 1.1 Introduction 1.2 What is Behavior and What is Mental Health? 1.2.1 Behavior 1.2.2 Mental health 1.2.3 How do stress and anxiety factor into mental health and behavior? 1.3 The Intersection of Mental Health and Behavior 1.3.1 Systemic signs of poor mental health 1.3.2 When does a change in behavior or mental state require intervention? 1.3.3 How can we protect our pets from behavioral or mental health problems? 1.4 Concluding Remarks 1.5 References 2 The Problems with Well-being Terminology 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Similarities and Differences Between Well-being Concepts in Animals 2.2.1 Common attributes among Well-being concepts in animals Represents the individual’s perspective and perception Based on the same philosophical frameworks Based on a balance of pleasant versus unpleasant affect A bipolar continuum phenomenon Coping ability Meeting of needs Methods of measurement General descriptions 2.2.2 Distinctions between Well-being concepts Distinctions in the human literature Distinctions in the animal literature temporality physical, psychological, or both predispositions, risks, and endangerment objectivity 2.3 Summary View of the Terminologyi n Animals 2.4 Is There a Solution? Notes 2.4 References 3 The Philosophical and Biological Evolution of Feelings in Well-being 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Early History 3.3 The Rise of Utilitarianism 3.4 The Emergence of Animal Rights 3.5 Utilitarianism or Animal Rights? 3.6 The Science of Animal Welfare 3.7 Understanding States of Suffering 3.8 What About States of Pleasure? 3.9 Gray Areas 3.10 References 4 The Relationship Between Mental and Physical Health 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Mental and Physical Health 4.2.1 Definitions 4.2.2 Genetic influences 4.2.3 Early life and epigenetic influences 4.2.4 Environmental influences 4.3 Resilience 4.4 Evaluating Mental and Physical Health 4.5 Biomarkers 4.6 Improving Mental and Physical Health in Animals 4.7 Concluding Remarks 4.8 References 5 Moving Beyond a Problem-based Focus on Poor Animal Welfare Toward Creating Opportunities to Have Positive Welfare Experiences 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Problem-based Thinking and Investigation 5.2.1 Early problem-based investigation of biological functioning 5.2.2 A problem-based perspective on the Five Freedoms paradigm 5.3 Limitations of the Five Freedoms Paradigm 5.4 Biological Significance of Negative Affective Experiences 5.4.1 Survival-related or survival-critical negative affects 5.4.2 Situation-related negative affects 5.5 Surviving or Thriving as Animal Management Objectives 5.5.1 Survival – the minimalist approach 5.5.2 Improving upon mere survival 5.5.3 Rewarding behaviors that may contribute to animals thriving 5.6 Five Domains Model for Animal Welfare Assessment 5.6.1 General background trends in animal welfare understanding 5.6.2 Formulation and evolution of the model 5.6.3 Validating inferences about affect referred to in the model Survival-critical negative affects Situation-related negative affects Situation-related positive affects 5.6.4 Wide applications of the model 5.6.5 An aide-memoire for sources of different affects identified using the model 5.7 Positive Welfare Experiences and their Promotion 5.7.1 ‘Positive affective engagement’ and ‘agency’ 5.7.2 Promoting opportunities for rewarding behaviors involving agency 5.7.3 Importance of minimizing survival-critical negative affects 5.8 Provisions and Welfare Aims that Promote Positive Experiences 5.9 Managing Welfare Using the Provisions Guided by the Welfare Aims 5.10 References 6 The Mental Health and Well-being Benefits of Personal Control in Animals 6.1 Defining and Characterizing Control 1 6.2 Locus of Control 6.3 The Desirability of Control 6.4 The Relationship of Control to Mental Health and Well-being 6.5 Effects of Control in Animals 6.5.1 How does control exert its beneficial effects? 6.6 Predictability 6.7 Effects of No Control: Learned Helplessness 6.8 Implications and Practical Applications 6.8.1 Enhancing control in animals Event-specific versus general control Individualizing the enhancement of control 6.8.2 Methods for enhancing specific and general control Enhancing control in early life Immunizing against adverse effects of uncontrollability Practical applications 6.8.3 Therapeutic considerations 6.9 Mental Health Implications Notes 6.10 References 7 Quality of Life of Animals in Veterinary Medical Practice 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Qualities of Quality of L ife 7.2.1 Evaluative 7.2.2 Broad 7.2.3 Individualistic 7.2.4 Mental 7.3 QOL and Other Concepts: What QOL is Not (Only) 7.3.1 Quality versus quantity 7.3.2 Pain 7.3.3 Health 7.3.4 Relationships and instrumental value 7.4 What Affects QOL 7.4.1 Inputs and indicators 7.4.2 Evaluating multiple inputs 7.5 Using QOL 7.5.1 Using proxy assessments 7.5.2 Measuring quality of life 7.5.3 Minimizing bias and error 7.5.4 Tool validation 7.5.5 Recognizing assessment limitations 7.6 Applications of QOL Thinking 7.6.1 Screening 7.6.2 Assessment 7.6.3 Predictions 7.6.4 Treatment decisions 7.6.5 Policy 7.6.6 Communication 7.7 References 8 The Mental Health and Well-being Benefits of Social Contact and Social Support in Animals 8.1 Benefits of Social Support in Humans and Nonhuman Animals 8.1.1 General fitness benefits 8.1.2 Health benefits Physical health Mental health 8.2 Social Support and Social Buffering in Animals 8.2.1 How social support benefits mental health and well-being Categorizing the effects of social support stress-related versus nonstress-related effects isolation-related and nonisolation-related stress Alleviation of negative affect (including stress) of social separation or isolation Buffering of nonsocial-isolation stress and adversity infant and juvenile animals adult animals neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying social buffering factors modulating the efficacy of social buffering Promotion of positive affect 8.2.2 The special case of dogs 8.3 Concluding Remarks Notes 8.4 References 9 Subjective Well-being, Happiness, and Personality in Animals 9.1 Background and Overview 9.2 Psychological Constructs and Nomological Networks 9.3 Chimpanzee Happiness 9.4 Chimpanzee Happiness Revisited 9.5 Other Species 9.6 Other Connections 9.7 Concluding Remarks 9.8 References 10 Fostering Mental and Behavioral Wellness During Upbringing and Throughout Life 10.1 Definitions and Terminology 10.1.1 Mental health 10.1.2 Behavioral health and mental health 10.1.3 Stress and stressors 10.2 Welfare and the Concept of Needs 10.2.1 Avoiding negative emotional states 10.2.2 Social companionship 10.2.3 Mental stimulation 10.2.4 Predictability 10.2.5 Controllability 10.2.6 Pleasurable experiences 10.3 Development and Mental Welfare 10.3.1 Genetic predispositions 10.3.2 The Development of altricial mammals 10.4 Environmental Influences on Behavior During Early Development 10.4.1 Prenatal phase 10.4.2 Neonatal phase 10.4.3 Socialization phase in dogs 10.4.4 Socialization phase in cats 10.4.5 Broader meaning of ‘socialization’ 10.4.6 Adolescent phase in dogs 10.4.7 Adolescent phase in rats and mice 10.5 Recommendations for Improving the Mental Health of Young and Older Companion Animals 10.5.1 Development of realistic expectations 10.5.2 Understanding normal behavior 10.5.3 Recognizing emotional states 10.5.4 Meeting behavioral needs 10.5.5 Limitations of specific recommendations 10.5.6 Discovering what creates or enhances positive emotions A Check Sheet for Making Your Pet Happy (Giving Her a Good Quality of Life) 10.5.7 The limits to giving choices 10.6 How Professionals Can Help 10.6.1 Prevention of behavior problems 10.6.2 Prevention of behavior problems Informational Topics on Dog and Cat Behavior 10.6.3 Resolving behavior problems 10.7 Concluding Remarks 10.8 References 11 What Is Distress? A Complex Answer to a Simple Question 11.1 Current Conceptualizations of Distress 11.1.1 Distress is extreme unpleasantness 11.1.2 Distress is any unpleasantness 11.1.3 Distress is any severity of certain mental disorders 11.1.4 Distress is a specific, discrete, or basic emotion 11.2 Key Considerations in Conceptualizing Distress 11.2.1 The issue of consciousness 11.2.2 The intensity/threshold question 11.2.3 The question of whether distress is anything more or different than intense negative affect 1 (NA): whether distress differs qualitatively or only quantitatively from less intense NA 11.3 Why is it Important to Clarify our Understanding of Distress? 11.4 Limitations of Current Research-based Operational Definitions 11.4.1 Distress is the state that occurs when an individual’s ability to cope or adapt to an aversive condition or event is exceeded 11.4.2 Distress is the state that exists when stress responses lead to pathologic changes 11.4.3 Distress is the state that exists when adversity leads to abnormal and maladaptive behaviors 11.4.4 But is distress a negative, maladaptive, failed state? 11.5 Homeostasis, Stress, and Distress 11.6 Affect and Motivation as the Core Elements of Distress 11.7 Comparing Distress and Suffering 11.7.1 Definitions 11.7.2 Specific characteristics Extreme unpleasantness and identifying a cut-off point Function Eliciting affects retain their original character Proposed causes The connection with a sense of control The question as to whether suffering differs qualitatively or only quantitatively from less intense NA 11.8 Concluding Remarks Note 11.9 References 12 Suffering, Agency, and the Bayesian Mind 1 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Academic Usage of the Term ‘Suffering’ 12.3 Human Descriptions of Suffering 12.4 Agency 12.5 The Bayesian mind 12.5.1 Bayes’ theorem and its application to pain 12.5.2 Learning about pain 12.5.3 The effects of pain on perception and cognition 12.5.4 Suffering, agency, and the Bayesian mind 12.6 Assessing Suffering in Animals 12.7 Concluding Remarks Acknowledgments Note 12.8 References 13 Mental Illness in Animals: Diagnostic Considerations Using Selected Mental Disorders 13.1 Approaching Complex Situations 13.2 What is a Diagnosis? 13.3 Understanding Different Levels of Mechanistic Interaction 13.3.1 The evolving story of impulse control aggression 13.3.2 Separation anxiety and noise reactivity/phobia 13.3.3 Obsessive-compulsive disorder in dogs and cats – a case study in variation and the emergent story of putative underlying mechanisms 13.4 Concluding Remarks 13.5 References 14 Psychological Trauma and Posttraumatic Psychopathology in Animals 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 Indistinct concepts and terminology 14.1.2 What is psychological trauma? 14.1.3 Psychological trauma: Considerations when comparing humans and animals Language and cognitive barriers Historical information Information about subjective experiences 14.2 Adaptive Fear Responses 14.3 Posttraumatic Psychopathology in Humans and Animals 14.3.1 Posttraumatic stress Posttraumatic stress disorder neurobiology and pathophysiology of ptsd posttraumatic stress disorder in animals Animal – Experimental Animal – Clinical Peer-reviewed reports Nonreviewed reports Canine PTSD Does PTSD occur in animals? 14.3.2 Posttraumatic phobias – Specific phobia 14.3.3 Generalized anxiety disorder 14.3.4 Depression and ‘learned helplessness’ 14.3.5 Trauma-related compulsive behaviors (obsessive-compulsive disorder, stereotypies) 14.4 Psychological Conditions/States that may Resemble and/or Coexist with Psychological Trauma 14.4.1 Inadequate socialization 14.4.2 Stress-induced dishabituation 14.5 Moderating Factors for Psychological Trauma: Risk and Resilience 14.5.1 Characteristics of the stressor 14.5.2 Characteristics of the experiencer Genetics Early life adversity ‘Stress inoculation’ Sense of control (internal locus of control) Social support (social buffering) Overlaps in factors associated with risk and resilience 14.6 Challenges in Distinguishing and Diagnosing Posttraumatic Psychological Disorders in Animals 14.6.1 Necessary distinctions in diagnosis Distinguishing trauma history from no trauma history Distinguishing among the spectrum of posttraumatic disorders (e.g., PTS, GAD, phobia, depression) Distinguishing PTSD from subthreshold PTSD (distinguishing levels of the PTS continuum) 14.6.2 Diagnostic methods 14.7 Rehabilitation and Treatment: Healing Psychological Trauma 14.7.1 Treatment principles and goals Cognitive behavioral therapy Pharmacotherapy 14.7.2 Treatment in animals Note 14.8 References 15 Cognitive and Emotional Disorders in the Aging Pet 15.1 The Clinical Picture 15.1.1 Characteristics of cognitive dysfunction syndrome 15.1.2 Prevalence 15.1.3 Progression 15.1.4 Risk factors 15.2 Evaluation: Identifying Welfare Concerns 15.2.1 Pathophysiology 15.2.2 Diagnosis 15.2.3 Comorbidity with affective disorders 15.3 Treatment: Addressing Welfare Concerns 15.3.1 Enrichment 15.3.2 Nutraceuticals 15.3.3 Prescription diets 15.3.4 Prescription pharmacotherapy ( Table 15.4) 15.3.5 Symptom-based anxiolysis 15.4 Concluding Remarks 15.5 References 16 Mental Health Issues in Farm Animals: A Music Mixing Board Model of Behavioral Characteristics Using the Panksepp Emotional System 16.1 Introduction 16.2 When Fearfulness is Reduced, Other Personality Traits Become Evident 16.3 Panksepp Emotional System 16.4 Music Mixing Board of the Seven Panksepp Emotional Traits 16.5 The Fear Factor 16.6 Fear Circuits in the Brain 16.7 Good First Experiences are Important 16.8 Sensory Basis and Specificity of Fear Memories in Animals 16.9 Handling Training 16.10 The Paradox of Novelty 16.11 The Need for Novelty 16.12 Intensive vs Intensive Environment 16.13 Concluding Remarks 6.14 References 17 Mental Health Issues in the Horse 17.1 Introduction 17.1.1 Coping in the domestic environment and mental health 17.1.2 Maladaptive versus malfunctional responses 17.2 Evolutionarily Natural Challenges Impacting on Mental Health 17.2.1 Fears, frustrations, and anxieties 17.2.2 Separation anxiety 17.2.3 Pain 17.3 Unmet Evolutionary Expectations Impacting on Mental Health 17.3.1 Boredom 17.4 Novel Domestic Challenges Impacting on Mental Health 17.4.1 Insoluble tasks 17.4.2 Unresolved conflicts associated with equitation 17.4.3 Lack of social support 17.4.4 Cognitive dysfunction and associated problems 17.5 Concluding Remarks 17.6 References 18 Mental Health Issues in Shelter Animals 18.1 Background 18.2 Relinquishment Reasons with Mental Well-being Implications 18.3 Shelter Environment Aspects with Mental Well-being Implications 18.3.1 Shelter environment and ‘overall’ welfare 18.3.2 Ontogeny in a shelter environment 18.4 Psychological Environment 18.4.1 Hyperarousal and frustration 18.4.2 Anhedonia and helplessness 18.5 Personality, Coping Styles, and Individual Differences 18.6 Recommendations 18.6.1 Agency, or, ‘behavioral engineering’ revisited 18.6.2 Predictability 18.7 Concluding Remarks 18.8 References 19 The Mental Health of Laboratory Animals 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Regulatory and Historical Context 19.3 Animal Welfare and Animal Research Data: How One Influences the Other 19.4 Stress, Distress, and Laboratory Animals 19.5 Opportunities and Considerations for the Improvement of Well-Being in Laboratory Animals 19.5.1 The physical environment Temperature Noise and vibration Light 19.5.2 The social environment 19.5.3 Human–animal interactions in the laboratory 19.5.4 Pain and laboratory animals 19.5.5 Environmental enrichment 19.6 Concluding Remarks 19.7 Acknowledgment 19.8 References 20 Mental Health Issues in Captive Birds 20.1 Species Diversity 20.2 Mental States and Experiences of Birds 20.3 Importance of Social Interactions 20.4 Pair Bonding 20.5 Predictable Environments 20.6 Developmental Factors 20.7 Foraging Opportunities 20.8 Photoperiod, Lighting, and Sleep Deprivation 20.9 Consequences of Poor Mental Health 20.9.1 Feather picking and self-mutilation 20.9.2 Screaming and excessive vocalization 20.9.3 Aggression problems 20.9.4 Territorial aggression 20.9.5 Fear aggression 20.9.6 Play aggression, inappropriate mouthing, and lack of bite inhibition 20.9.7 Reproductive causes of aggressive behavior 20.9.8 Dominance in psittacine birds 20.9.10 Enhancing the Quality of Care for Captive Birds 20.11 References 21 Psychological Well-being in Zoo Animals 21.1 Abnormal Behaviors in Zoo Animals 21.2 Challenges Particular to Zoo Animals 21.3 Positive Affective States and Well-being 21.4 The Importance of Keeper–Animal Relationships for Psychological Well-being 21.5 Tools for Enhancing Psychological Well-being: Positive Reinforcement Training 21.6 Tools for Enhancing Psychological Well-being: Environmental Enrichment 21.7 Multi-institutional Research in Zoos 21.8 Concluding Remarks 21.9 References 22 Mental Health Issues in Captive Cetaceans 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Who are Cetaceans and What Do They Need to Thrive? 22.2.1 Evolutionary history and phylogeny 22.2.2 Brain size and complexity Cerebral development The limbic system and emotional regulation Sensory systems 22.2.3 Psychology and behavioral adaptations 22.2.4 How well are these needs met in captivity? 22.3 The Effects of Chronic Stress on Mental (and Physical) Health 22.3.1 Behavioral abnormalities Stereotypies Self-harm Hyperaggression Inadequate maternal attachment and care Depression and the question of suicide 22.4 The Use of Psychotropic Drugs to Treat Mental Illness in Captive Cetaceans 22.5 Concluding Remarks 22.6 Acknowledgments Notes 22.7 References 23 Assessing Affective States in Animals 23.1 Introduction: Mental Health, Well-being and Emotional States 23.2 What is Animal Emotion: Consciousness and Concepts 23.2.1 Emotions as conscious subjective experiences: a potential barrier to their study in animals? 23.2.2 Discrete emotions and the dimensional view of emotion 23.2.3 Translating discrete and dimensional concepts to animals 23.3 Animal Emotion Terminology 23.4 From Animal Emotion Concepts to Animal Emotion Assessment 23.5 Assessing Animal Affect: New Developments in the Use of Expressive Behavior and Cognitive Markers 23.5.1 Expressive behavior Facial expressions Vocalizations Qualitative behavioural assessment (QBA) Conclusions 23.5.2 Cognitive markers of affective valence Anticipatory behavior Lateralization Cognitive bias Conclusions 23.6 Concluding Remarks 23.7 Acknowledgments 23.8 References 24 Treatment of Emotional Distress and Disorders – Nonpharmacologic Methods 24.1 Components of Treatment 24.2 Treatment Options for Distress-Related Behaviors 24.2.1 Flooding or implosion therapy 24.2.2 Desensitization and counterconditioning Desensitization alone Counterconditioning alone classical counterconditioning. operant counterconditioning. voluntary and involuntary behavior. 24.2.3 Which procedure is best? 24.2.4 Procedural considerations Ease of use Session duration and frequency Choice of reinforcement Maintenance 24.3 Adjunct Treatment Options 24.3.1 Social buffering 24.3.2 Competing response training 24.3.3 Backward chaining 24.3.4 Clicker training/shaping by successive approximations 24.3.5 Pressure–release 24.3.6 Predictability and control 24.4 Concluding Remarks 24.5 References 25 Treatment of Emotional Distress and Disorders – Pharmacologic Methods 25.1 Why Use Medications? 25.2 Decisions to Use Medication: Legal, Ethical, and Cost Issues 25.2.1 The Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act (AMDUCA) 25.2.2 Cost 25.2.3 Medicating the patient 25.3 Fast-acting Medications 25.3.1 Benzodiazepines 25.3.2 Trazodone 25.3.3 Sympatholytics Dexmedetomidine Propanolol 25.3.4 Opioid antagonists 25.3.5 Antipsychotics Acepromazine Haloperidol 25.3.6 CNS stimulants 25.3.7 Gabapentin 25.3.8 Hormones Oxytocin Progestins 25.4 Long-term or Maintenance Medications 25.4.1 Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors 25.4.2 Tricyclic antidepressants 25.4.3 Azapirones: buspirone 25.4.4 Monoamine oxidase inhibitors 25.5 Changing and Combining Medications for Optimal Well-being 25.6 References Index Back Cover