Neurobiology of Language

Description

Neurobiology of Language explores the study of language, a field that has seen tremendous progress in the last two decades. Key to this progress is the accelerating trend toward integration of neurobiological approaches with the more established understanding of language within cognitive psychology, computer science, and linguistics. This volume serves as the definitive reference on the neurobiology of language, bringing these various advances together into a single volume of 100 concise entries. The organization includes sections on the field's major subfields, with each section covering both empirical data and theoretical perspectives. "Foundational" neurobiological coverage is also provided, including neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, genetics, linguistic, and psycholinguistic data, and models. Front Cover Neurobiology of Language Copyright Page Dedication Contents List of Contributors Acknowledgement A. Introduction 1 The Neurobiology of Language 1.1 History 1.2 Lesion Analysis 1.3 From Neuropsychology to Cognitive Neuroscience 1.4 The Neurobiology of Language 1.5 Some Common Fallacies 1.6 Humans in Particular 1.7 Cognition and the Neurobiology of Language 1.8 Brain Disease, Treatment, and the Neurobiology of Language 1.9 Summary References B. Neurobiological Foundations 2 A Molecular Genetic Perspective on Speech and Language 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Discovery of FOXP2 2.3 FOXP2 Mutations in Speech and Language Disorders 2.4 Functions of FOXP2: The View from the Bench 2.5 Insights from Animal Models 2.6 FOXP2 in Human Evolution 2.7 Conclusions References 3 The Ventrolateral Frontal Region 3.1 Cytoarchitectonic Areas of the Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex 3.2 Parietal and Temporal Cortico-Cortical Connection Patterns of the Language Production Areas in the Ventrolateral Fronta... 3.3 Functional Implications 3.4 Non-Ventrolateral Prefrontal Areas and Their Possible Role in Language Acknowledgments References 4 On the Neuroanatomy and Functional Role of the Inferior Parietal Lobule and Intraparietal Sulcus 4.1 Gross Anatomy of the IPL and IPS 4.2 Modern Parcellation of the IPL and IPS 4.2.1 Human 4.2.2 Monkey 4.3 Connectivity of the IPL and IPS 4.3.1 Human 4.3.2 Monkey 4.4 Anatomical Differences Between Humans and Monkeys 4.5 Functions and Functional Connectivity of the IPL and IPS 4.5.1 Language and Speech 4.5.2 Motor Functions and Interaction with Objects 4.5.3 Spatial Functions 4.6 Summary References 5 Human Auditory Cortex 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Cortical Field Maps 5.3 Tonotopy: The First Dimension of AFMs 5.4 Cortical Organization of the Monkey Auditory System 5.5 Cortical Organization of the Human Auditory System 5.6 Periodotopy: The Second Dimension of AFMs 5.7 Similarities to AFM Organization in the Human Visual System 5.8 “Clover Leaf” Clusters Across Senses 5.9 Conclusion References 6 Motor Cortex and Mirror System in Monkeys and Humans 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Anatomy of the Monkey Motor Cortex 6.2.1 The Agranular Frontal Cortex 6.2.2 Cortical Connections of the Motor Areas 6.2.3 Area F5: Anatomical Subdivisions 6.2.4 Motor Properties of Area F5: The Vocabulary of Motor Acts 6.2.5 Canonical Neurons and the Visuomotor Transformation for Grasping 6.2.6 Mirror Neurons and Action Understanding 6.2.7 Mirror Neurons in the Parietal and the Primary Motor Cortex 6.2.7.1 Primary Motor Cortex 6.2.7.2 Parietal Cortex 6.3 The Human Motor Cortex 6.3.1 The Mirror Mechanism in Humans 6.3.2 Imitation 6.4 Motor System and Communication 6.5 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 7 Cerebellar Contributions to Speech and Language 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Macroscopic and Microscopic Anatomy of the Human Cerebellum 7.3 Comparative Anatomic Perspectives on Size and Composition of the Cerebellum 7.4 Cerebellar Support of Motor Control in Humans: Upper Limb Movements 7.5 Contributions of the Cerebellum to Speech Motor Control 7.5.1 The Profile of Ataxic Dysarthria: Auditory-Perceptual and Instrumental Studies 7.5.2 The Syndrome of Cerebellar Mutism: Impaired Initiation of Speech Production? 7.5.3 Functional Imaging Data Related to Speech Production 7.6 Engagement of the Cerebellum in Nonmotor Functions 7.6.1 The Cerebellar Cognitive Affective Syndrome 7.6.2 Lexical-Semantic and Syntactic Disorders of Spoken Language 7.6.3 Contributions of the Cerebellum to Nonmotor Functions: Speech and Nonspeech Auditory Perception 7.7 Conclusion References 8 The Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Historical Background 8.3 Overview of Basal Ganglia Anatomy 8.3.1 Inputs to the Basal Ganglia 8.3.2 Outputs from the Basal Ganglia 8.3.3 Pathways Through the Basal Ganglia 8.3.4 Dopamine in the Basal Ganglia 8.3.5 Functional Circuits Through the Basal Ganglia 8.3.6 Disorders of the Basal Ganglia 8.3.7 Learning and Memory and the Basal Ganglia 8.3.8 Summary 8.4 The Role of the Basal Ganglia in Speech Motor Control 8.5 The Role of the Basal Ganglia in Language 8.6 Segregated Functional Loops for Speech and Language 8.7 Summary References 9 The Thalamus and Language 9.1 Overview of Thalamic Organization 9.2 Defining the Role of the Thalamus in Language 9.3 A Thalamic “Locus” for Language? 9.4 Imaging of the Thalamus in Language Tasks 9.4.1 Models of the Role of the Thalamus in Language 9.5 Thalamic Circuitry and Physiology 9.6 Models of Thalamus and Language 9.7 Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgments References 10 The Insular Cortex 10.1 Gross Anatomy 10.2 Cytoarchitecture 10.3 Vasculature 10.4 Connectivity 10.5 Insular Cortex and Behavior 10.6 Association with Speech–Language Behavior References 11 White Matter Pathways in the Human 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Projection Pathways 11.2.1 Motor Corticospinal Tract and Somatosensory Thalamocortical Pathways 11.2.2 Optic Radiations 11.3 Long-Distance Association Pathways 11.3.1 The Dorsal Superior Longitudinal Fascicle/Arcuate Fascicle Complex 11.3.1.1 Anatomy 11.3.1.2 Structural–Functional Correlations 11.3.2 The Ventral Stream 11.3.2.1 Anatomy 11.3.2.2 Structural–Functional Correlations 11.4 Implication of a Hodotopical View of Brain Organization in Humans: Rethinking the Connectivity of Language and Its Rel... 11.5 The Limiting Role of Axonal Connectivity in Brain Plasticity 11.6 Conclusion References C. Behavioral Foundations 12 Phonology 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Speech Sounds and the MAP Loop 12.2.1 Action or Articulation of Speech 12.2.2 Perception or Audition of Speech 12.2.3 Memory or the Long-Term Storage of Speech 12.3 Features or the Internal Composition of Sounds 12.4 Local Sound Combinations and Chunking 12.5 Nonlocal Sound Combinations 12.6 Summary References 13 Morphology 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Why Morphology? 13.3 What Makes Morphology, Morphology 13.4 Types of Morphemes, Types of Morphologies, Types of Morphological Theories 13.5 The View from Above 13.6 Words and Rules: The Modern Consensus on Decomposition Acknowledgments References 14 Syntax and the Cognitive Neuroscience of Syntactic Structure Building 14.1 Introduction 14.2 A Brief History of Syntactic Theory 14.3 Two Concrete Examples of Syntactic Structure-Building Computations 14.4 Additional Properties of Syntactic Theories That One Would Expect from a Theory of Cognitive Computations 14.5 The Collaboration Necessary to Engage in This Program 14.6 Challenges to This Research Program 14.7 Conclusion References 15 Speech Perception as a Perceptuo-Motor Skill 15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 Perception and Action are Inextricably Integrated 15.1.2 Parity in Speech 15.2 Research Findings 15.2.1 Speech 15.2.2 Nonspeech 15.2.2.1 Nonlanguage 15.2.2.2 Language, Not Speech 15.3 Conclusion References 16 Speech Perception 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Effects of Auditory Distinctiveness on the Form of Speech 16.3 Effects of Auditory Interaction on the Form of Speech 16.4 Effects of Learnability on the Form of Speech 16.5 Moving Forward References 17 Understanding Speech in the Context of Variability 17.1 Speech and Speakers 17.2 The Lack of Invariance Problem 17.3 Adaptive Processing and Perceptual Learning 17.4 Empirical Evidence for Active Processing in Talker Normalization 17.5 Toward an Active Theory of Contextual Normalization 17.6 Neurobiological Theories of Speech Perception 17.7 Subcortical Structures and Adaptive Processing 17.8 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 18 Successful Speaking: Cognitive Mechanisms of Adaptation in Language Production 18.1 Language Production 18.1.1 Lexical Access 18.1.2 Grammatical Encoding 18.1.3 Phonological Encoding 18.2 Long-Term speaker Tuning: Implicit Learning 18.2.1 Implicit Learning of Words and Phrases 18.2.2 Structural Priming 18.2.3 Phonotactic Learning 18.3 Short-Term Speaker Tuning 18.3.1 Error Monitoring 18.3.2 Availability-Based Production 18.3.3 Information-Density Sensitivity 18.3.4 Audience Design 18.4 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 19 Speech Motor Control from a Modern Control Theory Perspective 19.1 Introduction 19.2 The Role of the CNS in Processing Sensory Feedback During Speaking 19.3 The CNS as a Feedforward Source of Speech Motor Commands 19.4 Current Models of the Role of the CNS in Speech Motor Control 19.5 The Concept of Dynamical State 19.6 A Model of Speech Motor Control Based on State Feedback 19.7 SFC Models Motor Actions as an Optimal Control Process 19.8 Speaking Behaves Like an Optimal Control Process 19.9 SFC Explains the Task-Specific Role of the CNS in Speech Feedback Processing 19.10 Is SFC Neurally Plausible? 19.11 SFC Accounts for Efference Copy Phenomena 19.12 Neural Substrate of the SFC Model 19.13 Conclusion References 20 Spoken Word Recognition: Historical Roots, Current Theoretical Issues, and Some New Directions 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Historical Roots and Precursors to SWR 20.2.1 Speech Intelligibility 20.2.2 Source-Filter Theory and Speech Cues 20.3 Principle Theoretical Issues in SWR 20.3.1 Word Frequency, Word Length, and Sentence Context Effects 20.3.2 Contemporary Approaches to SWR 20.3.3 Theoretical Accounts of SWR 20.3.4 Activation and Competition 20.3.5 TRACE 20.3.6 Shortlist, Merge, and Shortlist B 20.3.7 NAM and PARSYN 20.3.8 Distributed Cohort Model 20.4 SWR and the Mental Lexicon 20.4.1 The Conventional View 20.4.2 Linearity, Invariance, and Segmentation 20.4.3 An Alternative Proposal 20.4.4 Indexical Properties of Speech 20.5 Some New Directions and Future Challenges 20.6 Summary and Conclusions Acknowledgments References 21 Visual Word Recognition 21.1 The Architecture of Visual Word Recognition 21.2 Orthographic Representation 21.2.1 Letters and Letter Position 21.2.2 Frequency, Cumulative Frequency, and Age of Acquisition 21.2.3 Morphology 21.3 Processing Dynamics and Mechanisms of Selection 21.3.1 Interactive Processing 21.3.2 Competition as a Mechanism for Selection 21.3.2.1 Neighborhood Effects 21.3.2.2 Masked Form Priming Effects 21.4 Visual Word Recognition and the Reading System 21.4.1 Phonological Influences on Visual Word Recognition 21.4.2 Semantic Influences on Visual Word Recognition 21.5 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 22 Sentence Processing 22.1 Sources of Information for Sentence Processing 22.2 Theoretical Controversies 22.3 Classes of Models of Sentence Processing 22.4 Conclusion References 23 Gesture’s Role in Learning and Processing Language 23.1 Gesture Not Only Reflects Thought, It Can Play a Role in Changing Thought 23.2 Role of Gesture in Language Learning 23.2.1 Vocabulary 23.2.1.1 Vocabulary Comprehension 23.2.1.2 Vocabulary Production 23.2.2 Syntax 23.2.2.1 Syntactic Comprehension 23.2.2.2 Syntactic Production 23.2.3 Discourse 23.2.3.1 Discourse Comprehension 23.2.3.2 Discourse Production 23.2.4 Does Gesture Play a Causal Role in Language Learning? 23.3 Role of Gesture in Language Processing 23.3.1 Gesturing is Involved in Language Processing at Every Level 23.3.1.1 Phonology 23.3.1.2 Lexicon 23.3.1.3 Syntax 23.3.1.4 Discourse 23.3.2 Gesture Serves a Function for Both Listeners and Speakers 23.3.2.1 Impact of Gesture on Listeners 23.3.2.2 Impact of Gesture Impact on Speakers 23.4 Implications for the Neurobiology of Language References D. Large-Scale Models 24 Pathways and Streams in the Auditory Cortex 24.1 Human Speech Perception 24.2 Where Is “Wernicke’s Area”? 24.3 Dual Processing Streams and Hierarchical Organization in the Auditory Cortex of the Monkey 24.3.1 “What” and “Where” Pathways in Vision and Audition 24.3.2 Functional Dual Pathways 24.3.3 “What” and “How” Pathways: The Perception–Action Cycle 24.4 Dual Processing Streams in the Auditory Cortex of Humans 24.4.1 Role of Antero-Ventral Auditory Pathway in Object Identification and Speech Perception 24.4.1.1 Hierarchical Organization 24.4.1.2 Auditory Object Identification 24.4.1.3 Speech and Voice Perception 24.4.1.4 Invariance, Categorization 24.4.1.5 Hemispheric Asymmetry 24.4.2 Role of Postero-Dorsal Auditory Pathway in Space Processing 24.4.3 Role of Postero-Dorsal Auditory Pathway in Speech Processing 24.4.4 Multisensory Responses and Sensorimotor Integration 24.4.4.1 Speech Perception-Production Links 24.5 Conclusions: A Common Computational Function for the Postero-Dorsal Stream? Acknowledgments References 25 Neural Basis of Speech Perception 25.1 Introduction 25.2 The Dual Route Model of Speech Processing 25.2.1 Ventral Stream: Mapping from Sound to Meaning 25.2.1.1 Bilateral Organization and Parallel Computation 25.2.1.2 Computational Asymmetries 25.2.1.3 Phonological Processing and the STS 25.2.1.4 Lexical-Semantic Access 25.2.2 Dorsal Stream: Mapping from Sound to Action 25.2.2.1 The Need for Auditory-Motor Integration 25.3 Clinical Correlates of the Dual Stream Model 25.4 Summary References 26 Brain Language Mechanisms Built on Action and Perception 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Phonemes 26.3 Signs 26.4 Meaning 26.5 Combinations and Constructions 26.6 Speech Acts and Social-Communicative Interaction 26.7 Outlook: Key Issues in Brain Language Research 26.7.1 Modeling Real Circuits 26.7.2 Motor Involvement in Speech Perception and Comprehension 26.7.3 Localizing Semantics 26.7.4 Task Modulation and Attention 26.7.5 Neurocomputational Modeling and Temporal Dynamics Acknowledgments References 27 The Dual Loop Model in Language 27.1 Patients 27.2 Neurospsychology 27.3 Functions of the Dual Loop Model 27.4 Anatomy, Hubs, Divisions 27.5 Development References 28 MUC (Memory, Unification, Control): A Model on the Neurobiology of Language Beyond Single Word Processing 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Memory, Unification, and Control 28.3 The Network Topology of the Language Cortex 28.4 The Empirical Evidence for the MUC Model 28.5 A General Account of the Role of LIFC in Language Processing 28.6 The Dynamic Interplay Between Memory and Unification 28.7 Attentional Control 28.8 Beyond the Classical Model Acknowledgments References 29 The Neuroanatomical Pathway Model of Language: Syntactic and Semantic Networks 29.1 Introduction 29.2 From Dorsal and Ventral Streams to Fiber Tracts 29.3 The Neuroanatomical Pathway Model of Language 29.3.1 Four Language-Related Pathways 29.3.2 Syntactic and Semantic Networks 29.3.2.1 Syntactic Networks 29.3.2.2 Semantic Networks 29.4 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 30 The Argument Dependency Model 30.1 Introduction 30.2 A Brief History of the Development of eADM 30.3 Design Principles 30.3.1 Language-Based Design Principles 30.3.2 Neurobiological Design Principles 30.4 The Model Architecture 30.4.1 The Computational Division of Labor Between the Dorsal and Ventral Streams 30.4.2 Hierarchical Organization as a Common Principle 30.4.3 Representing Actions in the Dorsal and Ventral Streams 30.4.4 Integrating Information Between Streams 30.5 Evidence for the Model 30.6 Consequences for Electrophysiology 30.7 Outlook Acknowledgments References E. Development, Learning, and Plasticity 31 Language Development 31.1 Precursors to Language 31.2 First Words 31.3 Individual Variability, Developmental Trajectories, and the Vocabulary “Burst” 31.4 Early Language and Its Relationship to Nonlinguistic Abilities 31.5 Relationship Between Early Development and Later Language Abilities 31.6 The Relationship Between Vocabulary and Grammar 31.7 The Nature of Children’s Early Grammar 31.8 Language Development in Older Children 31.9 Neural Measures of Language Development 31.10 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 32 The Neurobiology of Gesture and Its Development 32.1 Exploring Gesture and Its Development at the Behavioral Level 32.2 Gesture and Its Development in the Context of a Broader Neurobiology of Language 32.3 The Neurobiology of Gesture: Electrophysiology 32.4 The Neurobiology of Gesture: Functional Imaging 32.4.1 Gesture Along the Ventral Stream 32.4.2 Gesture Along the Dorsal Stream 32.5 The Neurobiology of Gesture Development 32.6 Conclusion References 33 Development of the Brain’s Functional Network Architecture 33.1 What Is a Network and How Can We Study Brain Networks? 33.2 Organization of the Brain’s Functional Network Architecture 33.3 Is There a Language Network? 33.4 Development of Brain Networks 33.5 Implications of Development of Brain Networks to Language-Related Brain Regions 33.6 Future Directions Acknowledgment References 34 Bilingual Development and Age of Acquisition 34.1 Introduction 34.2 Age of Acquisition 34.3 Aoa in a Single Language 34.4 The Relationship Between AoA and Sensitive Periods 34.5 AoA and Second Language Learning 34.6 Phonology in a Second Language 34.7 AoA and the Bilingual Brain 34.8 Grammatical Processing and AoA 34.9 Isolating AoA 34.10 AoA Effects During Grammatical Processing 34.11 Comparing First and Second Languages 34.12 AoA and Development References 35 Bilingualism: Switching 35.1 Introduction 35.2 Language Switching: Instantiating the Paradigm 35.3 Evidence from Electrophysiology 35.4 The Neural Correlates of Language Control: A Frontal, Parietal, and Subcortical Network 35.4.1 The Neural Correlates of Language Switching 35.5 Conclusion References 36 Neurobiology of Sign Languages 36.1 Introduction 36.2 Sign Language Aphasia 36.2.1 Broca-Like Signing 36.2.2 Wernicke-Like Signing 36.2.2.1 Comprehension Deficits 36.2.2.2 Sign Language Paraphasia 36.3 Right Hemisphere Damage 36.3.1 Discourse Abilities 36.4 Neuroimaging 36.4.1 Sign Language Production 36.4.2 Sentence Comprehension 36.5 Sign Language and the Mirror Neuron System 36.5.1 Morphometric Studies 36.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References F. Perceptual Analysis of the Speech Signal 37 Phoneme Perception 37.1 Neuropsychological Studies 37.2 Functional Imaging Studies 37.3 Direct Electrophysiological Recordings 37.4 The Role of Articulatory Representations in Phoneme Perception 37.5 Hemispheric Specialization in Phoneme Perception References 38 A Neurophysiological Perspective on Speech Processing in “The Neurobiology of Language” 38.1 Overview 38.1.1 Timescales in Auditory Perception 38.1.2 The Temporal Structure of Speech Sounds 38.2 Cortical Processing of Continuous Sounds Streams 38.2.1 The Discretization Problem 38.2.2 Analysis at Mutiple Timescales 38.2.3 Neural Oscillations as Endogenous Temporal Constraints 38.2.4 Alignment of Neuronal Excitability with Speech Timescales 38.2.5 Parallel Processing at Multiple Timescales 38.2.6 Parallel Processing in Bilateral Auditory Cortices 38.2.7 Dysfunctional Oscillatory Sampling 38.3 Broadening the Scope: Functional Models 38.3.1 An Oscillation-Based Model of Speech Processing 38.3.2 Predictive Models of Speech Processing 38.3.3 Conclusion References 39 Direct Cortical Neurophysiology of Speech Perception 39.1 Introduction 39.2 Invasive Neural Recording Methods 39.2.1 Event-Related Neural Responses 39.2.2 High-Frequency Oscillations 39.2.3 Limitations of Invasive Methods 39.3 Intracranial Contributions to the Neurobiology of Language 39.3.1 Sensory Encoding in Primary Auditory Cortex 39.3.2 Acoustic–Phonetic Representations in Lateral Superior Temporal Cortex 39.3.3 Population Encoding of Phonemic Information in STG 39.3.4 Cognitive Influences on Speech in STG 39.4 The Future of Invasive Methods in Language Research References 40 Factors That Increase Processing Demands When Listening to Speech 40.1 Types of Processing Demand 40.1.1 Perceptual Demands 40.1.2 Linguistic Demands 40.1.3 Concurrent Task Demands 40.2 Summary References 41 Neural Mechanisms of Attention to Speech 41.1 Overview and History 41.2 Neural Networks for Attentional Control 41.3 Levels of Attentional Selection 41.4 Speech Representations that Attention Selects 41.5 Neural Mechanisms and Top-Down/Bottom-Up Interactions 41.6 Interactions Between Attention, Perception, and Prediction 41.7 Future Directions Acknowledgments References 42 Audiovisual Speech Integration: Neural Substrates and Behavior 42.1 Neuroarchitecture of Audiovisual Speech Integration 42.2 Behavioral Approaches for Studying Audiovisual Speech Integration 42.3 Intersubject Variability 42.4 Neural Substrates of the McGurk Effect Acknowledgments References 43 Neurobiology of Statistical Information Processing in the Auditory Domain 43.1 Introduction 43.2 Brain Systems Involved in Statistical Information Processing 43.2.1 Cortical Systems Underlying Statistical Processing of Linguistic Inputs 43.2.1.1 Involvement of Temporal Regions 43.2.1.2 Involvement of Left IFG 43.2.2 Subcortical Systems Underlying Statistical Information Processing 43.2.2.1 Involvement of Basal Ganglia in Statistical Learning 43.2.2.2 Debates on the Functional Role of Basal Ganglia 43.3 Connectional Anatomy of the Statistical Network 43.4 Related Work and Further Afield 43.5 Conclusion and Future Work References G. Word Processing 44 The Neurobiology of Lexical Access 44.1 Introduction 44.2 Three Challenges for Lexical Access in Speech 44.3 Mapping Lexical Computations onto Neurobiology 44.3.1 Processing Effort and STG Responses to Familiar and Unfamiliar Words 44.3.2 Anterior Temporal Lobe Contributions to Integrating Speech Over Time 44.3.3 Temporoparietal Regions Link Auditory and Motor Representations of Spoken Words 44.3.4 Posterior Middle and Inferior Temporal Regions Map Spoken Words onto Meaning 44.4 Functional Segregation and Convergence in Lexical Processing 44.5 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 45 A Common Neural Progression to Meaning in About a Third of a Second 45.1 Part 1: The Timecourse of Semantic Access Out of Context 45.1.1 Face and Object Processing 45.1.2 Visual Word and Number Processing 45.1.3 Auditory Word Processing 45.1.4 Summary 45.2 Part 2: Context and the Timecourse of Semantic Access 45.3 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 46 Left Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Processing of Words and Sentences 46.1 Introduction 46.2 VLPFC in Single-Word Processing 46.2.1 Deciphering Words with Multiple Meanings 46.2.2 Verbal Fluency 46.2.3 Picture Naming and the Need for Control 46.2.4 TMS Studies 46.3 VLPFC in Sentence Processing 46.3.1 Syntactic Complexity 46.3.2 Anomalous Sentences 46.3.3 Other Semantic–Syntactic Comparisons 46.3.4 Ambiguity 46.4 Summary 46.4.1 Against a Rigid Semantic–Syntactic Distinction in VLPFC 46.4.2 A New “Broca’s” Aphasia 46.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Avenues Acknowledgments References H. Sentence Processing 47 The Role of the Anterior Temporal Lobe in Sentence Processing 47.1 What About Broca’s Area? 47.2 Where Is the ATL? 47.3 Domain-General Semantics 47.4 The ATL Responds to Sentence Structure 47.5 Syntax 47.6 Combinatorial Semantics 47.7 Prosody 47.8 The ATL Is Part of a Large Language Network 47.9 Summary Acknowledgments References 48 Neural Systems Underlying the Processing of Complex Sentences 48.1 Introduction 48.2 Why Are Word-Order Deviations Difficult to Process? 48.3 Why Are Embedded Sentences Difficult to Process? 48.4 Which Brain Regions Are Involved in Processing Complex Sentences? 48.5 What Do Word-Order Deviations and Embedding Have in Common? 48.6 Summary References 49 The Timecourse of Sentence Processing in the Brain 49.1 Preliminaries: Challenges to a Neurobiological Perspective on the Timecourse of Sentence Processing 49.2 Neurobiological Considerations 49.3 Differing Perspectives on the Timecourse of Sentence Processing in the Brain 49.3.1 Component Mapping/Absolute Timing 49.3.2 Absolute Timing Revisited: Virtual Parallelism and an Early Cascade 49.3.3 The Crucial Role of Top-Down Predictions 49.3.4 Integrating Multiple Information Sources During Multimodal Language Processing 49.3.5 The Interplay Between Top-Down and Bottom-Up Information Sources 49.3.6 The Emerging Picture 49.4 Behavioral Insights 49.5 Open Questions/Perspectives for Future Research References 50 Composition of Complex Meaning: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Left Anterior Temporal Lobe 50.1 “Semantics” in the Brain Sciences Versus Linguistics 50.2 The Sentence Versus List Paradigm 50.3 An Empirical Question: Do Concepts Matter for Composition? 50.4 Methodological Starting Points for the Cognitive Neuroscience of Semantic Composition 50.5 The LATL as a Combinatory Region: Evidence from MEG 50.6 Delving deeper: what types of representations does the latl combine? 50.6.1 Composition Versus Conceptual Specificity 50.6.2 Composition Versus Conceptual Combination 50.6.3 Absence of LATL Effects in Semantic Mismatch Configurations: Studies on Coercion 50.7 Closing Remarks Acknowledgments References 51 Working Memory and Sentence Comprehension 51.1 Early Studies of STM/WM and Its Relation to Comprehension 51.2 Changes in Models of STM/WM 51.3 Retrieval Mechanisms in Parsing 51.4 Capacity Limits in STM/WM and Sentence Comprehension 51.5 An Alternative Framework for Viewing the Memory System for Parsing and Interpretation 51.6 A Comment on the Neural Basis of Procedural (LT-WM) Memory Mechanisms Underlying Sentence Comprehension Acknowledgments References Further Reading 52 Grounding Sentence Processing in the Sensory-Motor System 52.1 Introduction 52.2 Grounding of Action-Related Sentence Processing in the Sensory-Motor System 52.3 Flexible Modulations of Sensory-Motor Grounding by Grammatical and Syntactic Aspects 52.4 Figurative Language as an Abstract Sentential-Semantic Context for Action-Related Verbs 52.5 Emotion-Related Language: Abstract but Partially Grounded in the Sensory-Motor System 52.6 Abstract Sentence Processing Is Grounded in Experiential Neurocognitive Systems 52.7 Concluding Remarks References I. Discourse Processing and Pragmatics 53 Discourse Comprehension 53.1 Cohesion 53.2 Coherence 53.3 Situation Model Construction 53.4 Shifting and Mapping 53.5 Conclusion References 54 At the Core of Pragmatics 54.1 Communicative Intention: The Core Feature of Pragmatic Phenomena 54.2 Neural Substrates of Communicative Intention: The Intention Processing Network 54.3 Communication Is More than Language 54.4 Communicative Exchange 54.5 Steps Toward an Ecology of Communication Acknowledgments References J. Speaking 55 Neurobiology of Speech Production: Perspective from Neuropsychology and Neurolinguistics 55.1 Introduction 55.2 Historical Perspective: Speech Production Deficits in Aphasia 55.3 Phonological Processes in Speech Production 55.3.1 Nature of Representations 55.3.2 Cascading Activation 55.4 Phonetic Processes in Production 55.4.1 Articulation 55.4.2 Sensorimotor Integration 55.5 Summary Acknowledgments References 56 Word Production from the Perspective of Speech Errors in Aphasia 56.1 Speech Errors in Aphasia: The Neurological Tradition 56.2 Two Stages of Lexical Access in Production 56.2.1 The Interactive Two-Step Model of Lexical Access in Naming 56.3 Model-Inspired Lesion Analysis of Semantic Errors 56.4 Summation Dual-Route Model of Repetition 56.4.1 Behavioral and Neural Predictors of Dual-Route Model Parameters 56.5 Implications for Neurocognitive Models of Language 56.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 57 Motor-Timing and Sequencing in Speech Production 57.1 Formal and temporal prediction: fundamentals in speech processing 57.2 A synchronized speech processing mode 57.3 Timing speech: subcortico-cortical interactions 57.4 Conclusion References 58 Neural Models of Motor Speech Control 58.1 Introduction 58.2 The Planning of Speech Movements 58.3 Brain Regions Involved in Speech Articulation 58.4 Neurocomputational Models of Speech Production 58.5 The DIVA Model 58.5.1 Auditory Feedback Control 58.5.2 Somatosensory Feedback Control 58.5.3 Feedforward Control 58.6 The GODIVA Model of Speech Sound Sequencing 58.7 The HSFC Model 58.8 Future Directions Acknowledgments References 59 Neurobiology of Speech Production: A Motor Control Perspective 59.1 Introduction 59.2 Neurobiology of Speech Motor Control 59.2.1 Speech Representations 59.2.2 Speech Motor Planning and Programming 59.2.2.1 Response Selection 59.2.2.2 Response Sequencing 59.2.2.3 Motor Programming 59.2.2.4 Movement Initiation 59.3 Speech Movement Execution 59.4 Feedback Processing and Sensory-Motor Integration 59.5 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 60 Sentence and Narrative Speech Production: Investigations with PET and fMRI 60.1 Introduction 60.1.1 The Limitations 60.2 What Have We Learned from Meta-Analyses of Language Studies 60.3 Narrative Speech Production 60.4 Functional MRI Studies of Sentence Production 60.5 Conclusion References K. Conceptual Semantic Knowledge 61 The Hub-and-Spoke Hypothesis of Semantic Memory 61.1 Introduction 61.2 The Importance of the Spokes and the Regions from Which They Emanate 61.3 The Insufficiency of the Spokes and Their Sources: Why We Need a Hub 61.4 Why Should the Hub Be Centered on the ATL? 61.5 Evidence for and Possible Reasons for a Bilateral ATL Hub 61.6 The Graded Hub Hypothesis 61.7 Concluding Comment References 62 What Does It Mean? A Review of the Neuroscientific Evidence for Embodied Lexical Semantics 62.1 Introduction 62.2 Models of Embodied Semantics 62.3 Methods for Neuroscientific Research on Embodied Semantics 62.4 Review of the Empirical Literature 62.4.1 Concrete Lexical Semantics 62.4.2 Abstract Lexical Semantics 62.5 The Influence of Task, Context, and Individual Experience 62.6 Conclusion References L. Written Language 63 Acquired Dyslexia 63.1 Introduction 63.2 Peripheral Dyslexias 63.2.1 Alexia Without Agraphia or Pure Alexia 63.2.1.1 Neglect Dyslexia 63.2.1.2 Attentional Dyslexia and Related Disorders 63.3 Central Dyslexias 63.3.1 Phonological Dyslexia 63.3.2 Surface Dyslexia 63.3.3 Deep Dyslexia 63.4 Computational Models of Reading 63.5 Assessment of Reading References 64 Imaging Brain Networks for Language: Methodology and Examples from the Neurobiology of Reading 64.1 Introduction 64.2 Functional Connectivity Analyses: A Set of Exploratory Techniques 64.2.1 Overview 64.2.2 Independent Components Analysis 64.2.2.1 ICA Method 64.2.2.2 ICA: Reading Network Example 64.2.3 Seed Partial Least Squares (PLS) 64.2.3.1 PLS Method 64.2.3.2 PLS: Reading Network Example 64.2.4 Synchronization of Neuronal Oscillations 64.2.4.1 SNO Method 64.2.4.2 SNO: Reading Network Example 64.3 Effective Connectivity Analyses: A Set of Confirmatory Techniques 64.3.1 Overview 64.3.2 Psychophysiological Interactions (PPI) 64.3.2.1 PPI Method 64.3.2.2 PPI: Reading Network Example 64.3.3 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) 64.3.3.1 SEM Method 64.3.3.2 SEM: Reading Network Example 64.3.4 Dynamic Causal Modeling (DCM) 64.3.4.1 DCM Method 64.3.4.2 DCM: Reading Network Example 64.4 Techniques Spanning Both Functional and Effective Domains 64.4.1 Granger Causality (GC) 64.4.1.1 GC Method 64.4.1.2 GC: Reading Network Example 64.4.2 Graph Theory 64.4.2.1 Graph Theory Method 64.4.2.2 Graph Theory: Reading Network Example 64.5 Conclusions References 65 Developmental Dyslexia 65.1 Introduction 65.1.1 What Is Developmental Dyslexia? 65.1.2 Skills That Support Typical Reading Acquisition are Impaired in Dyslexia 65.2 Functional Anatomy of Reading 65.3 Neuroanatomical Bases of Dyslexia 65.4 Neurofunctional Bases of Dyslexia 65.5 Genetic and Physiological Mechanisms in Dyslexia 65.6 Neurobiology of Reading Interventions 65.7 Cause Versus Consequence? 65.8 Important Variables in Studies of Dyslexia 65.9 Conclusion Acknowledgments References M. Animal Models for Language 66 Rodent Models of Speech Sound Processing 66.1 Rodent Models Are Important for Studying Neural Correlates of Speech Perception 66.2 Speech Sound Discrimination by Rodents 66.2.1 Consonants 66.2.2 Vowels 66.2.3 Complex Tasks 66.3 Speech Sound Neural Coding 66.4 Speech Sound Processing Problems 66.4.1 Acoustic Degradation 66.4.2 Cortical Lesions 66.4.3 Rodent Models of Speech Processing Impairments 66.4.4 Genetic Manipulation References N. Memory for Language 67 Introduction to Memory 67.1 Introduction: Amnesia and Patient H.M. 67.2 Medial Temporal Lobe Memory System 67.3 Episodic Memory 67.4 Semantic Memory 67.5 Procedural Memory 67.6 Memory Consolidation and Sleep 67.7 Neurogenesis 67.8 Aging and Memory 67.9 Language Learning and the Medial Temporal Lobe References 68 Neural Basis of Phonological Short-Term Memory 68.1 Theoretical Perspectives on Phonological Short-Term Memory 68.1.1 Phonological Memory as a Passive Process 68.1.2 Phonological Memory as a Dedicated Repository That Can Be “Refreshed” via Inner Speech 68.1.3 Short-Term Phonological Memory as Attention-Based Activation 68.1.4 Short-Term Phonological Memory via Speech Planning and Efferent Reactivation 68.2 Neural Perspectives on Short-Term Phonological Memory 68.2.1 Passive Phonological Memory 68.2.2 Active Short-Term Phonological Memory: Differing Perspectives 68.2.3 A Core Phonological System 68.2.4 Neural Mechanisms for Articulatory Rehearsal 68.3 Summary References 69 Working Memory and Language 69.1 Introduction 69.2 The Emergence of the Concept of Short-Term Memory 69.3 Neurological Evidence for a Separation of Short-Term and Long-Term Memory 69.4 The Emergence of the Concept of Working Memory 69.5 The Phonological Loop 69.6 Neural Basis of Verbal Working Memory 69.7 Neurological Studies of Language and Verbal Short-Term Memory 69.8 Functional Neuroimaging Investigations of Verbal Working Memory 69.9 Event-Related fmri Studies of Verbal and Auditory Working Memory 69.10 Reconciling Neuropsychological and Functional Neuroimaging Data 69.11 Summary and Conclusion References O. Language Breakdown 70 Language Development in Autism 70.1 Delay in Autistic Language Development 70.2 Heterogeneity and Variability in Autistic Language Development 70.3 Trajectories of Language Development 70.4 Language Delay Versus Language Deviance References 71 Symptoms and Neurobiological Models of Language in Schizophrenia 71.1 Introduction 71.2 Phenomenology, Assessment, and Course of Formal Thought and Language Disorder 71.3 Structural Brain Changes and FTD 71.4 Neural Correlates of FTD (Symptom Catching) 71.5 Semantics 71.6 Pragmatics 71.7 Auditory Sensory, Phonological, and Prosodic Processing 71.8 Syntax 71.9 Neurotransmitter Dysfunction 71.10 Genetic Influence on Speech and Language Dysfunctions in Schizophrenia 71.11 Lateralization Asymmetry in Schizophrenia 71.12 Conclusions and Future Perspectives References 72 Specific Language Impairment 72.1 Introduction 72.2 Neuropsychological Profile 72.3 Structural Imaging of SLI 72.4 Functional Imaging of SLI 72.4.1 Localization of Brain Activity in SLI 72.4.2 Time Course of Cortical Activation in SLI 72.5 Conclusion 72.6 Towards a Neurobiology of SLI References 73 Vascular Aphasia Syndromes 73.1 Introduction 73.2 Classic Aphasia Categorization: Vascular Syndromes 73.2.1 Broca’s Aphasia 73.2.2 Wernicke’s Aphasia 73.2.3 Global Aphasia 73.2.4 Conduction Aphasia 73.2.5 Anomic Aphasia 73.2.6 Transcortical Aphasias 73.2.7 Subcortical Aphasias 73.2.8 Variability of Vascular Syndromes 73.3 Vascular Syndromes and Contemporary Paradigms 73.4 Cognitive Processes Underlying Aphasia 73.5 Potential Usefulness of Vascular Syndromes 73.5.1 Aphasia Research 73.5.2 Treatment of Stroke 73.5.3 Aphasia Treatment 73.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 74 Psycholinguistic Approaches to the Study of Syndromes and Symptoms of Aphasia 74.1 Introduction 74.2 The Aphasia Syndromes 74.3 Some Caveats and Challenges 74.4 Language Deficits Underlying Aphasia Syndromes 74.4.1 Phonetic/Phonological Impairments 74.4.1.1 Speech Production 74.4.1.2 Speech Perception 74.5 Lexical Impairments 74.6 Syntactic Impairments 74.7 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 75 Introduction to Primary Progressive Aphasia 75.1 Introduction and History of Primary Progressive Aphasia 75.2 The Nonfluent/Agrammatic Variant 75.2.1 Demographics 75.2.2 Clinical Characteristics 75.2.3 Neuroanatomy and Imaging 75.2.4 Histopathology and Genetics 75.3 The Semantic Variant 75.3.1 Demographics 75.3.2 Clinical Characteristics 75.3.3 Anatomy and Imaging 75.3.4 Histopathology and Genetics 75.4 The Logopenic Variant (lvPPA) 75.4.1 Demographics 75.4.2 Clinical Features 75.4.3 Anatomy and Imaging 75.4.4 Histopathology and Genetics 75.5 Future Directions in PPA References 76 The Declarative/Procedural Model: A Neurobiological Model of Language Learning, Knowledge, and Use 76.1 The Memory Systems 76.1.1 The Declarative Memory System 76.1.2 The Procedural Memory System 76.1.3 Interactions Between the Memory Systems 76.2 Predictions for Language 76.2.1 Declarative Memory: Predictions for Language 76.2.1.1 What Should Declarative Memory Underlie in Language? 76.2.1.2 How Should Declarative Memory Underlie Language? 76.2.2 Procedural Memory: Predictions for Language 76.2.2.1 What Should Procedural Memory Underlie in Language? 76.2.2.2 How Should Procedural Memory Underlie Language? 76.2.3 Interactions Between the Memory Systems: Predictions for Language 76.3 Evidence 76.3.1 Declarative Memory in Language: Evidence 76.3.1.1 What Does Declarative Memory Underlie in Language? 76.3.1.2 How Does Declarative Memory Underlie Language? 76.3.2 Procedural Memory in Language: Evidence 76.3.2.1 What Does Procedural Memory Underlie in Language? 76.3.2.2 How Does Procedural Memory Underlie Language? 76.3.3 Interactions Between the Memory Systems in Language: Evidence 76.4 Summary and Conclusion Acknowledgments References 77 Perinatal Focal Brain Injury: Scope and Limits of Plasticity for Language Functions 77.1 Perinatal Focal Brain Injury: Language Development and Neural Plasticity 77.2 Four Central Questions 77.3 How Do Focal perinatal lesions Affect Language Development? 77.3.1 Severity of Language Deficits in Children with perinatal lesions 77.3.2 Relation of Gesture and Language 77.3.3 Summary 77.4 How Do Biological Characteristics of Early Focal Lesions Relate to Language Functioning? 77.4.1 Lesion Location 77.4.2 Lesion Size 77.4.3 Lesion Type 77.4.4 Seizure History 77.4.5 Motor and Language Functions 77.4.6 Lesion Timing 77.5 What Is the Role of Language Input on the Language Development of Children with perinatal lesions? 77.6 What Is the Mechanism of Language Plasticity After Early Lesions? 77.6.1 Equipotentiality 77.6.2 Left Hemisphere Specialization from the Start 77.6.3 Emergent Specialization of Language Networks 77.6.4 Neural Underpinnings of Language in Children with perinatal lesions 77.7 Summary and Future Directions References 78 Motor Speech Impairments 78.1 Introduction 78.2 Motor Impairments Within a Neurological Framework 78.2.1 Spastic Paresis 78.2.2 Ataxia 78.2.3 Akinesia 78.2.4 Dyskinesia 78.2.5 Apraxia of Speech 78.3 Motor Impairments for Spoken Language Production 78.3.1 Speech and Emotional Expression 78.3.2 Speech Versus Volitional Nonspeech Vocal Tract Movements 78.3.3 Language-Specific Phonological Structure Interacts with Speech Motor Impairment 78.4 Sensory-Motor Aspects of Speech Sound Production Impairment 78.4.1 Auditory and Somatosensory Feedback and Speech Impairment 78.4.2 Cerebellar Sensorimotor Integration Mechanisms in Speech Impairment 78.4.3 Striatal Mechanisms of Sensorimotor Integration in Speech Impairment 78.4.4 Sensorimotor Connectivity at the Cortical Level 78.5 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 79 The Neurobiology of Developmental Stuttering 79.1 Introduction 79.2 Developmental Stuttering 79.3 Enhancing Fluency in People Who Stutter 79.4 Genetic Studies of Developmental Stuttering 79.5 The Neural Basis of Developmental Stuttering 79.5.1 Incomplete Cerebral Lateralization in Developmental Stuttering 79.5.2 Abnormal Sensorimotor Integration in Developmental Stuttering 79.5.3 Abnormal Basal Ganglia Function in Developmental Stuttering 79.6 Conclusion References P. Language Treatment 80 Neuroplasticity Associated with Treated Aphasia Recovery 80.1 Neuroplasticity 80.2 Acute and Chronic Considerations 80.3 Structural Brain Changes and Aphasia Recovery 80.4 Functional Brain Changes and Aphasia Recovery References 81 Melodic Intonation Therapy 81.1 The Impact of Nonfluent Aphasia 81.2 The Basis and Components of Intonation-Based Speech Therapy for Patients with Nonfluent Aphasia 81.3 Experiences with the Application of MIT 81.4 Examining Aspects of Rhythm and Melody in Cross-Sectional Studies 81.5 Neural Correlates of MIT: Neuroimaging Findings 81.6 Possible Mechanisms Explaining the Effects of an Intonation-Based Speech Therapy 81.7 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 82 Constraint-Induced Aphasia Therapy: A Neuroscience-Centered Translational Method 82.1 Aphasia Therapy: Relevance and Classic Paradigms 82.2 Neuroscience and Language Evidence 82.2.1 Language Structure and Function in Aphasia Rehabilitation 82.2.2 Guidance by Constraints 82.2.3 Therapy Intensity and Frequency 82.3 CIAT: Methods and Efficacy 82.3.1 CIAT Methods 82.3.2 Evidence: Is CIAT Effective? 82.4 Variants and Extensions of Original CIAT Methods 82.4.1 ILAT: Widening the Scope of Communicative Actions and Linguistic Materials 82.4.2 CIAT II: A Revision of the Original CIAT Protocol Bringing It Closer to the CIMT Model 82.5 Summary and Outlook References 83 Noninvasive Brain Stimulation in Aphasia Therapy: Lessons from TMS and tDCS 83.1 Introduction 83.2 TMS as Treatment for Aphasia 83.2.1 Basics of TMS 83.2.2 TMS as Therapy for Aphasia 83.2.3 Blinded, Controlled Studies in Subacute and Chronic Aphasia 83.2.4 Variables Relevant to the Response to TMS 83.2.4.1 Effect of Aphasia Subtype, Severity, and Lesion Location 83.2.4.2 Site of Stimulation 83.2.4.3 Stimulus Parameters 83.2.4.4 Does Concurrent Speech Therapy Make a Difference? 83.2.4.5 Time Course of Benefit 83.2.5 Summary of TMS Effects 83.3 tDCS as Therapy for Aphasia 83.3.1 Basics of tDCS 83.4 tDCS as a Treatment for Aphasia 83.4.1 Electrode Placement 83.4.2 Control Conditions and Follow-up 83.4.3 Concurrent Treatment 83.4.4 Outcomes 83.5 General Discussion 83.5.1 TMS and tDCS: Advantages and Disadvantages 83.5.2 NIBS and Mechanisms of Recovery References 84 Imitation-Based Aphasia Therapy 84.1 Introduction: Repetition and Imitation in Aphasia 84.2 Neurobiological Approaches to Language and Aphasia 84.3 Mirror Neuron System 84.3.1 Macaque 84.3.2 Human 84.3.2.1 Behavioral 84.3.2.2 Neurophysiology 84.3.2.3 Brain Imaging 84.4 Mirror Neuron System and Language 84.4.1 Perception and Production of Articulated Speech 84.4.1.1 Neurophysiology 84.4.1.2 Brain Imaging 84.4.1.2.1 Motor Regions Engaged During Speech Perception 84.4.1.2.2 Temporal and Auditory Regions Engaged During Speech Production 84.4.2 Comprehension of Action Language 84.5 Dual Streams for Speech 84.5.1 The Ventral Stream 84.5.2 The Dorsal Stream and Parietal Cortical Connectivity 84.6 Aphasia Therapy: Speech Imitation as Therapeutic Tool 84.7 Mirror Neuron System and Rehabilitation 84.8 Aphasia Therapy: Speech Imitation as Therapeutic Theory 84.8.1 IMITATE 84.8.2 Speech Entrainment 84.9 Aphasia Therapy: Nonspeech Motor Observation and Imitation 84.10 Conclusion References 85 Pharmacotherapy for Aphasia 85.1 Introduction 85.2 Major Challenges 85.3 Mechanisms of Recovery and Pharmacotherapy 85.3.1 Animal Studies: Catecholamine-Based Therapy 85.3.2 Animal Studies: Cholinergic Mechanisms 85.3.3 Animal Studies: Serotonin and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor 85.3.4 Animal Studies: GABAergic Mechanisms 85.3.5 Animal Studies: Extracellular Matrix-Based Mechanisms 85.3.6 Animal Studies: Combining Drug and Behavioral Therapy 85.4 Human Studies: Pharmacotherapy for Aphasia 85.4.1 Human Studies: Noradrenergic Agents 85.4.2 Human Studies: Dopamine Agonists and Levodopa 85.4.3 Human Studies: Cholinergics and Anticholinergics 85.4.4 Human Studies: Piracetam 85.4.5 Human Studies: Memantine 85.4.6 Human Studies: Zolpidem 85.4.7 Human Studies: Vasopressin 85.4.8 Drugs to Avoid 85.5 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 86 Cell-Based Therapies for the Treatment of Aphasia 86.1 Introduction 86.2 Stem Cell Therapies: Introduction 86.3 Human Neural Stem Cells 86.4 Adult/Fetal hNSCs 86.5 Human Embryonic Stem Cells and Neural Derivatives 86.6 Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and Neural Derivatives 86.7 Mesenchymal Stem Cells 86.8 Issues Related to Clinical Application of Stem Cell Therapies References Q. Prosody, Tone, and Music 87 Processing Tone Languages 87.1 Introduction 87.2 Tone Languages of East and Southeast Asia 87.3 Lexical Versus Sublexical Units 87.4 Tonal Versus Segmental Units 87.5 Tonal Features 87.6 Tonal Processing at the Level of the Auditory Brainstem 87.7 Categorical Perception of Tone 87.8 Tone Versus Other Suprasegmental Units 87.9 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 88 The Neurocognition of Prosody 88.1 Introduction 88.2 Brain Mapping of Prosody 88.3 The Neural Basis of Linguistic Prosody Processing 88.3.1 Clinical Evidence 88.3.2 Brain Imaging Evidence 88.3.3 ERP Findings 88.4 The Neural Basis of Emotional Prosody Processing 88.4.1 Clinical Evidence 88.4.2 Brain Imaging Evidence 88.4.3 ERP Findings 88.5 Summary Acknowledgments References 89 Environmental Sounds 89.1 What Are Environmental Sounds? 89.2 Perceptual, Cognitive, and Neural Processing of Environmental Sounds 89.3 Section One: Perceptual and Cognitive Factors in Processing Environmental Sounds 89.3.1 Identification and Categorization of Environmental Sounds 89.3.2 Environmental Sounds Comprehension Over the Lifespan 89.3.3 Semantic and Conceptual Priming with Environmental Sounds 89.3.4 Context Effects in Environmental Sounds Processing 89.4 Section Two: Neural Factors in Processing Environmental Sounds 89.4.1 Behavioral Studies on Hemispheric Asymmetries in Environmental Sounds Comprehension 89.4.1.1 Effects of Brain Damage on Environmental Sounds Processing 89.4.2 Functional Neuroimaging of Environmental Sounds 89.4.2.1 “Passive” Listening Neuroimaging Studies 89.4.2.2 “Active”/Task-Based Listening Neuroimaging 89.4.2.3 “Active” Tasks Comparing Environmental Sounds and Language 89.4.2.4 fMRI Studies of Cross-Modal Priming with Environmental Sounds 89.4.2.5 Categorical Representations of Sound Categories 89.5 Conclusion Acknowledgments References Index