Information Visualization. Perception for Design

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Front Cover Information Visualization: Perception for Design Copyright Table of Contents Preface About the Author Chapter 1 Foundations for an Applied Science of Data Visualization Visualization Stages Experimental Semiotics Based on Perception Semiotics of Graphics Are Pictures Arbitrary? Sensory versus Arbitrary Symbols Properties of Sensory Representation Testing Claims about Sensory Representations Representations That Are Arbitrary The Study of Arbitrary Conventional Symbols Gibson’s Affordance Theory A Model of Perceptual Processing Stage 1. Parallel Processing to Extract Low-Level Properties of the Visual Scene Stage 2. Pattern Perception Stage 3. Visual Working Memory Attention Costs and Benefits of Visualization Types of Data Entities Relationships Attributes of Entities or Relationships Data Dimensions: 1D, 2D, 3D, … Types of Numbers Uncertainty Operations Considered as Data Metadata Conclusion Chapter 2 The Environment, Optics, Resolution, and the Display The Environment Visible Light Ecological Optics Optical Flow Textured Surfaces and Texture Gradients The Paint Model of Surfaces The Eye The Visual Angle Defined Lens Optics and Augmented-Reality Systems Optics in Virtual-Reality Displays Chromatic Aberration Receptors Simple Acuities Acuity Distribution and the Visual Field Brain Pixels and the Optimal Screen Spatial Contrast Sensitivity Function Visual Stress The Optimal Display Aliasing Number of Dots Superacuities and Displays Temporal Requirements of the Perfect Display Conclusion Chapter 3 Lightness, Brightness, Contrast, and Constancy Neurons, Receptive Fields, and Brightness Illusions Simultaneous Brightness Contrast Mach Bands The Chevreul Illusion Simultaneous Contrast and Errors in Reading Maps Contrast Effects and Artifacts in Computer Graphics Edge Enhancement Luminance, Brightness, Lightness, and Gamma Constancies Luminance Displaying Details Brightness Monitor Gamma Adaptation, Contrast, and Lightness Constancy Contrast and Constancy Contrast on Paper and on Screen Perception of Surface Lightness Lightness Differences and the Gray Scale Contrast Crispening Monitor Illumination and Monitor Surrounds Conclusion Chapter 4 Color Trichromacy Theory Color Blindness Color Measurement Change of Primaries Chromaticity Coordinates Color Differences and Uniform Color Spaces Opponent Process Theory Naming Cross-Cultural Naming Unique Hues Neurophysiology Categorical Colors Properties of Color Channels Spatial Sensitivity Stereoscopic Depth Motion Sensitivity Form Color Appearance Monitor Surrounds Color Constancy Color Contrast Saturation Brown Applications of Color in Visualization Application 1: Color Specification Interfaces and Color Spaces Color Spaces Color Naming Systems Color Palettes Application 2: Color for Labeling (Nominal Codes) Application 3: Color Sequences for Data Maps Form and Quantity Interval Pseudocolor Sequences Ratio Pseudocolors Sequences for the Color Blind Bivariate Color Sequences Application 4: Color Reproduction Conclusion Chapter 5 Visual Salience and Finding Information Eye Movements Accommodation The Eye Movement Control Loop V1, Channels, and Tuned Receptors The Elements of Form The Gabor Model and Visual Distinctness A Differencing Mechanism for Fine Discrimination Feature Maps, Channels, and Lessons for Visual Search Preattentive Processing and Ease of Search Attention and Expectations Highlighting and Asymmetries Coding with Combinations of Features Coding with Redundant Properties What Is Not Easily Findable: Conjunctions of Features Highlighting Two Data Dimensions: Conjunctions That Can Be Seen Integral and Separable Dimensions: Glyph Design Restricted Classification Tasks Speeded Classification Tasks Integral–Separable Dimension Pairs Representing Quantity Representing Absolute Quantities Multidimensional Discrete Data: Uniform Representation versus Multiple Channels Stars and Whiskers The Searchlight Metaphor and Cortical Magnification Useful Field of View Tunnel Vision, Stress, and Cognitive Load The Role of Motion in Attracting Attention Motion as a User Interrupt Conclusion Chapter 6 Static and Moving Patterns Gestalt Laws Proximity Similarity Connectedness Continuity Symmetry Closure and Common Region Figure and Ground More on Contours Representing Vector Fields: Perceiving Orientation and Direction Comparing 2D Flow Visualization Techniques Showing Direction Texture: Theory and Data Mapping Tradeoffs in Information Density: An Uncertainty Principle Primary Perceptual Dimensions of Texture Texture Contrast Effects Other Dimensions of Visual Texture Nominal Texture Codes Using Textures for Univariate and Multivariate Map Displays Quantitative Texture Sequences Perception of Transparency: Overlapping Data Perceiving Patterns in Multidimensional Discrete Data Pattern Learning Priming Vigilance The Visual Grammar of Node–Link Diagrams The Visual Grammar of Maps Patterns in Motion Form and Contour in Motion Moving Frames Expressive Motion Perception of Causality Perception of Animated Motion Enriching Diagrams with Simple Animation The Processes of Pattern Finding Chapter 7 Space Perception Depth Cue Theory Perspective Cues The Duality of Depth Perception in Pictures Pictures Seen from the Wrong Viewpoint Occlusion Shape-from-Shading Shading Models Cushion Maps Surface Texture Cast Shadows Distance Based on Familiar Size Depth of Focus Eye Accommodation Structure-from-Motion Eye Convergence Stereoscopic Depth Problems with Stereoscopic Displays Frame Cancellation The Vergence–Focus Problem Distant Objects Making Effective Stereoscopic Displays Cyclopean Scale Virtual Eye Separation Artificial Spatial Cues Depth Cues in Combination Task-Based Space Perception Tracing Data Paths in 3D Graphs Judging the Morphology of Surfaces Conformal Textures Guidelines for Displaying Surfaces Bivariate Maps—Lighting and Surface Color Patterns of Points in 3D Space Perceiving Patterns in 3D Trajectories Judging Relative Positions of Objects in Space Judging the Relative Movements of Self within the Environment Selecting and Positioning Objects in 3D Judging the “Up” Direction The Aesthetic Impression of 3D Space (Presence) Conclusion Chapter 8 Visual Objects and Data Objects Image-Based Object Recognition Priming Searching an Image Database Life Logging Structure-Based Object Recognition Geon Theory Silhouettes The Object Display and Object-Based Diagrams The Geon Diagram Faces Coding Words and Images Mental Images Labels and Concepts Object Categorization Canonical Views and Object Recognition Concept Mapping Concept Maps and Mind Maps Iconic Images versus Words versus Abstract Symbols Static Links Scenes and Scene Gist Priming, Categorization, and Trace Theory Conclusion Chapter 9 Images, Narrative, and Gestures for Explanation The Nature of Language Sign Language Language Is Dynamic and Distributed over Time Is Visual Programming a Good Idea? Images versus Sentences and Paragraphs Links between Images and Words Integrating Visual and Verbal and the Narrative Thread Linking Text with Graphical Elements of Diagrams Gestures as Linking Devices in Verbal Presentations Deixis Symbolic Gestures Expressive Gestures Animated versus Static Presentations Visual Narrative Animated Images Conclusion Chapter 10 Interacting with Visualizations Data Selection and Manipulation Loop Choice Reaction Time Two-Dimensional Positioning and Selection Hover Queries Path Tracing Two-Handed Interaction Learning Control Compatibility Exploration and Navigation Loop Locomotion and Viewpoint Control Spatial Navigation Metaphors Wayfinding, Cognitive Maps, and Real Maps Landmarks, Borders, and Place Frames of Reference Egocentric Frame of Reference Exocentric Frames of Reference Map Orientation Focus, Context, and Scale in Nonmetaphoric Interfaces Distortion Techniques Rapid Zooming Techniques Elision Techniques Multiple Simultaneous Views Conclusion Chapter 11 Visual Thinking Processes The Cognitive System Memory and Attention Working Memories Visual Working Memory Capacity Change Blindness Spatial Information Attention Object Files, Coherence Fields, and Gist Long-Term Memory Chunks and Concepts Knowledge Formation and Creative Thinking Knowledge Transfer Visualizations and Mental Images Review of Visual Cognitive System Components Early Visual Processing Pattern Perception Eye Movements The Intrasaccadic Scanning Loop Working Memory Mental Imagery Epistemic Actions Visual Queries Computational Data Mappings Visual Thinking Algorithms Algorithm 1: Visual Queries Algorithm 2: Pathfinding on a Map or Diagram Visual Query Construction The Pattern-Finding Loop Algorithm 3: Reasoning with a Hybrid of a Visual Display and Mental Imagery Algorithm 4: Design Sketching Algorithm 5: Brushing Algorithm 6: Small Pattern Comparisons in a Large Information Space Algorithm 7: Degree-of-Relevance Highlighting Algorithm 8: Generalized Fisheye Views Algorithm 9: Multidimensional Dynamic Queries with Scatter Plot Algorithm 10: Visual Monitoring Strategies Conclusion Appendix A: Changing Primaries Appendix B: CIE Color Measurement System Appendix C: The Perceptual Evaluation of Visualization Techniques and Systems Research Goals Psychophysics Detection Methods Method of Adjustment Cognitive Psychology Structural Analysis Testbench Applications for Discovery Structured Interviews Rating Scales Statistical Exploration Principal Components Analysis Multidimensional Scaling Clustering Multiple Regression Cross-Cultural Studies Child Studies Practical Problems in Conducting User Studies Experimenter Bias How Many Subjects to Use? Combinatorial Explosion Task Identification Controls Getting Help Appendix D: Guidelines Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Bibliography Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z