Handbook of Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across the Lifespan: A project of the National Partnership to End Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan (NPEIV)

Description

Handbook of Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan is an official publication of the National Partnership to End Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan (NPEIV). It is a comprehensive state-of-the-science reference work for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers. It is written from a trauma-informed perspective, and utilizes adverse childhood experiences research as its basic developmental framework along with the traumatic effects all forms of interpersonal violence tend to produce. With public health and social justice in mind, this human-rights based handbook also focuses on the overlap and continuum of the various types of interpersonal violence. It integrates all forms of interpersonal violence while dealing with key issues of intersectionality and systems responses. This six-volume handbook is published in collaboration with the National Partnership to End Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan, which aims to: Acknowledge and understand the impact interpersonal violence has on individuals and society Recognize the mental, physical, legal, social, and economic burden of interpersonal violence Respect an individual's basic right to live without violence; value human dignity Promote consensus-based practices while maintaining cultural sensitivity Consider and address the unique needs of vulnerable populations Foreword Preface Contents About the Editors About the Section Editors Contributors Section I: Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across The Lifespan: Foundations and Perspectives 1 Fundamentals of Understanding Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Introduction Commonalities and Dynamics Across All Forms of Interpersonal Violence Recurrent Themes Across All Types of Interpersonal Violence Developmental Perspective: Family Dynamics, Adverse Childhood Experiences, Poly-victimization, and Trauma Intersectionality, Status, Power, and Control Cultural Issues and Special Populations Common Risk and Protective Factors Increasing Awareness: The Handbook of Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across the Lifespan Definitions, Theories, and Scope of Types of Interpersonal Violence Systems Involved in Interventions Intervention Approaches and Programs Prevention Programs Controversial Issues Future Directions Organizing to Connect Agendas: History of the National Partnership to End Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan (NPEIV) Action: Call for Integrating Research, Practice, Advocacy, and Policy National Plan to Reduce Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across the Lifespan Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 2 Integration of the Types of Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan Introduction Case Study Historical Reductionism: Splitting Apart the Complex Context of Violence Age Ability Status Gender Racial and Ethnic Identities Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Violence by Environment and Context Community and SES Institutions: Schools, Military, and Prisons Schools Military Prisons Border Crossings A New Vision: Interconnections, Not Silos The Lifespan Context of Violence Cascading Impact of Early Violence and Impact Across the Lifespan: Focus on Attachment Attachments in Infancy Attachments in Early Childhood Attachments in Adolescence Attachments in Adulthood Attachment in Older Adulthood Lifespan Versus Incident Approach to Understanding Violence Exposure Public Health Approach Multidisciplinary Responses to Violence Shift in the Role of Criminal Justice Shift in the Role of Educators Shift in the Role of Medical Professionals Shift in the Role of Social Services Shift in the Role of Mental Health Shift in the Role of Policy Makers/Politicians Key Points Summary and Conclusions References 3 A History of Interpersonal Violence: Raising Public Concern Introduction Current Situation: Violence as Harm The Biopolitics of Interpersonal Violence Violence as Excess Violence as Deviance Violence as Conflict Violence as Oppression Violence as Trauma Key Points Summary and Conclusions References 4 Examining Interpersonal Violence from a Trauma-Informed and Human Rights Perspective Introduction What We Know About Various Forms of Interpersonal Violence Child Abuse Intimate Partner Violence and Sexual Assault Older Adults Community Violence Peer Violence Gang Violence Hate Crimes Examining Interpersonal Violence from a Human Rights Framework Trauma-Informed Perspective Integrating the Trauma-Informed and Human Rights Perspectives Toward a National Commitment to End Interpersonal Violence Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 5 Adverse Childhood Experiences: Past, Present, and Future Introduction The History of ACEs Prevalence of ACEs Cumulative, Dose-Response Effect of ACEs ACEs and Health ACEs and Substance Use ACEs and Mental Health ACEs and Behavioral Problems ACEs and Other Outcomes Scope of Adverse Experiences Different Approaches to Models of ACEs Causal Pathways from ACEs to Outcomes Chronic Overactivation of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis DNA Methylation Alteration of Immune and Inflammatory Functions Alterations to Brain Structure and Function Alterations to Emotion and Behavior Regulation Intergenerational Epigenetic Effects of ACEs Protective Factors Summary and Conclusion Key points References 6 Trauma-Informed Systems of Care Trauma, Interpersonal Violence, and Social Support Secondary Survivors Social Support Trauma and Health Trauma-informed Care Awareness of Trauma and Its Impact: Rrrrs in Action Safety Trustworthiness and Transparency Empowerment and Choice Peer Support Collaboration and Mutuality Cultural, Historical, and Gender Issues Attention to Secondary Survivors Organizational Structure and Culture Agency Self-assessment Collaboration with Trauma-Informed Partner Agencies Individual Level Barriers to Implementation Counter-Transference, Vicarious Trauma, and Burnout Social Attitudes Towards Traumatized Populations Self-protection and the ``Just World´´ Hypothesis Agency Level Barriers to Implementation Resistance to Change Cultural and Ideological Differences Turf Issues Lack of Knowledge and Fear of Trauma Contagion Financial Barriers Workplace Bullying and Sexual Harassment Innovations in Assessment and Treatment Controversies, Questions, and Issues for Future Research Key Points Summary Cross-References References 7 Intersectionality Introduction Historical Origins Practical Implications of Intersectionality Implementing Intersectionality in Everyday Practice Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 8 Historical and Contemporary Racial Trauma Among Black Americans: Black Wellness Matters Introduction America, Free of Africans: Considering Contributions of Black Psychology Historical and Contemporary Racial Trauma Historical and Contemporary Racial Trauma Definitions Power and Control Wheel of Historical Trauma Physical Violence Sexual Violence Systematic Resource Denial Economic Abuse Appropriation of Cultural Resources, Traditions, and Knowledge Spiritual Abuse Race Socialization Via Cultural Abuse Psychological Abuse Long-Term Effects of Historical and Contemporary Racial Trauma Clinical Applications when Working with Black Americans Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 9 Defining Gun Violence Using a Biopsychosocial Framework: A Public Health Approach Introduction Gun Violence as a Disease Gun Violence as a Complex Biopsychosocial Disease Biological Component of Gun Violence Psychological Component of Gun Violence Social Component of Gun Violence Gun Violence Prevention and Haddon´s Matrix Examples of Gun Violence Prevention Policy and Practice Case Example Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 10 Suicidality and Interpersonal Violence Introduction Suicidality and Domestic Violence Suicide as Escape Vulnerable Populations Suicide Threat as a Tool of Abuse Risk to Male Perpetrators Interpersonal Murder-Suicide Intimate Partners Child Murder-Suicide Familicide and Other Types Theories of Murder-Suicide Child Abuse and Suicide Child Suicides ACES as Predictor of Adult Suicidality Diathesis-Stress Model of Suicidality Bullying and Suicidality Definitions and Types Bullying of Children Cyberbullying Workplace Bullying Sexual Abuse and Suicidality Child Sex Abuse Abuse by Clergy Neurobiological Impact of Child Sex Abuse Adult Rape and Sexual Assault Sex Trafficking and Suicidality Domestic Homicide, Suicide, and Firearms Suicidality and Interpersonal Violence - Future Directions Multimorbidity Coordinated Assessments Intervention and Assessment of At-Risk Youth Protective Factors for Bullied Youth Preventative Measures for Child Sexual Abuse Recommendations for Sex Trafficking Prevention of Murder-Suicide Promising Approaches to Suicide Prevention Further Research Key Points Summary and Conclusions References 11 A National Plan to End Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan Introduction The Work of the National Partnership The Scope of the Problem Unequal Access and Other Barriers to Systems of Protection Improving the Development and Delivery of Prevention Initiatives Within a Coordinated Community Public Health Model Recommendations Developing a Competent Workforce Strengthening Health and Mental Healthcare Responses to Violence Strengthening Justice System Responses to Cases of Interpersonal Violence Connecting Research to Practice Improving Public Awareness and Public Policy Public Policy Provide Public Policy Advocacy Training Key Points Conclusions References Section II: Maltreatment and Victimization of Children and Adolescents 12 An Introduction to Child and Youth Maltreatment: Consequences and Considerations Introduction Historical Review of Child Abuse and Child Protection Maltreatment and Victimization of Children and Adolescents Child Physical Abuse Neglect Sexual Abuse Emotional Abuse Family Violence and Teen Dating Violence Cultural Issues Consequences and Interventions Recognizing and Responding Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 13 Overview of Child Maltreatment Introduction Defining and Assessing Child Maltreatment Types of Child Maltreatment Other Ways to Conceptualize Child Maltreatment Consideration of Assessment Approaches Consequences of Child Maltreatment Introduction to Child Maltreatment Research Psychological Outcomes Behavioral Outcomes Physical Health Outcomes Resilience Mechanisms of Effects Economic Costs of Child Maltreatment Risk Factors for and the Context of Child Maltreatment Parental and Caregiver Risk Factors Familial Risk Factors Neighborhood Risk Factors Limitations and Future Considerations in Child Maltreatment Research and Practice Limitations in Child Maltreatment Research Future Considerations in Child Maltreatment Research and Practice Summary and Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References Section III: Physical Abuse of Children and Adolescents 14 Parents Who Physically Abuse: Current Status and Future Directions Introduction Defining Physical Abuse Epidemiology Connections to Other Forms of Interpersonal Violence Risk and Protective Factors Intrapersonal Factors External Factors Protective Factors Prevention Initiatives and Intervention Options Future Directions Public Policy Implications Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 15 Corporal Punishment: From Ancient History to Global Progress Definition Introduction Historical Context Prior to Recorded History The Age of Antiquity The Medieval Period The Age of Enlightenment The Modern Period The Age of Children´s Rights The Legal Status of Corporal Punishment Today Corporal Punishment in Homes Corporal Punishment in Schools Corporal Punishment in Alternative Care and Child Care Settings Judicial Corporal Punishment Corporal Punishment in Response to Violations of Community Norms Corporal Punishment and Political Conflict The Current State of Research on Corporal Punishment´s Outcomes Outcomes of Corporal Punishment by Parents Outcomes of School Corporal Punishment Research on Children´s Perspectives The Prevalence of Corporal Punishment of Children Challenges to Estimating Prevalence Standardized International Prevalence Estimates Approaches to Prevention Summary and Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References 16 Abusive Head Trauma: Understanding Head Injury Maltreatment Introduction Definition Epidemiology and Risk Factors Clinical Presentation Clinical Timing of Injury Mechanism of Injury Common Injuries or Findings in AHT Intracranial Hemorrhages Parenchymal Injury Axonal Injury and Hypoxic Injury Neck and Spinal Injury Ocular Findings Fractures Head and Facial Bruising Findings at Autopsy Evaluation of Abusive Head Trauma History-Taking and Multidisciplinary Evaluation Imaging Evaluation Laboratory Evaluation Accidental Injury Versus AHT Mimics Birth Injury Benign Enlargement of the Subarachnoid Spaces Rebleeding Coagulopathies Connective Tissue Disorders Glutaric Aciduria Type 1 Menkes Disease Outcomes Prevention Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References 17 Domestic Child Torture: Identifying Survivors and Seeking Justice Understanding Domestic Child Torture Introduction Child Torture - The Medical Definition Improving the Identification of Child Torture Cases: CPS Investigations Failure to Protect Case Example - Adrian Jones Indicators That Can Signal Child Torture Multiple Reports of Child Abuse Series of Serious Physical Assaults Documentation Intentionally Depriving Life´s Necessities (Food, Water, Restroom) from the Child Documentation Isolation, Withdrawal from Activities, Deprivation of Human Contact through Surveillance Equipment or Restraints, and or Confi... Documentation Odd and/or Painful Regimes of Physical Discipline Intended to Break the Will of the Child Documentation What Happened to Adrian Jones Child Torture, Available Charges Do Not Fit the Crime State Codes Model Code Summary and Conclusion Key Points Appendix A Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming References 18 Fractures Fractures: An Introduction General Bone Physiology Vitamin D Parathyroid Hormone Calcitonin Phosphate Fracture Healing Fracture Morphology Fracture Biomechanics Plastic Deformation and Greenstick Fractures Transverse Fracture Spiral Fracture Oblique Fracture Buckle Fracture Classic Metaphyseal Lesion Fractures and Specificity for Abuse Classic Metaphyseal Lesions Rib Fractures Scapular Fractures Sternal Fractures Spinous Process Fractures Differential Diagnoses Osteogenesis Imperfecta Vitamin D Deficient Rickets Hyperparathyroidism Menkes Disease Scurvy Caffey Disease Osteomyelitis Other Causes Iatrogenic Agents Novel Theories ``Temporary Brittle Bone Disease´´ ``Healing Rickets´´ ``Temporary Brittle Bone Disease´´ from In Utero Confinement Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome Medical Evaluation Obtaining History Physical Examination Laboratory Analysis Radiology Sibling Evaluation Key Points Conclusion Summary Cross-References References 19 Abusive Burns Introduction History Medical Evaluation Burn Classification Types of Burns Thermal Burns Radiant Burns Chemical Burns Electrical Burns Friction Burns Cold Injury Medical Child Abuse Scene Investigation Burn Mimics Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 20 Bruising in Suspected Child Maltreatment Introduction Pathophysiology Approach to Clinical Assessment History Examination Documentation of Findings Injury Interpretation and Diagnostic Considerations Age and Developmental Ability of the Child Injury Location Shape/Pattern Number of Injuries Impact of Medical Conditions Affecting Bruising Children with Medical Illnesses Children with Bleeding Disorders Children with Motor Disability: Dating of Bruises Laboratory and Radiologic Testing in the Evaluation of Bruising in Suspected Maltreatment Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 21 Inflicted Thoracoabdominal Trauma Introduction Epidemiology Clinical Presentation History Delay in Seeking Care Solid Organ Injuries Case Study (Pancreatic Pseudocyst) Hollow Viscus Injuries Thoracic Trauma Laboratory Evaluation Imaging Studies Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 22 Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy Introduction Definition and Names Epidemiology Diagnosis Examples Covert Video Surveillance Case Management Legal Issues Future Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 23 Corporal Punishment: Finding Effective Interventions Introduction The Discovery of Childhood The Child Protection Movement Estimates of Corporal Punishment Correlates of Corporal Punishment Harm and Ineffectiveness of Corporal Punishment Interventions to Reduce Corporal Punishment Alternatives to Physical Discipline The Worldwide Movement to End Corporal Punishment Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 24 Child Physical Abuse: A Pathway to Comprehensive Prevention Introduction Mental Health Promotion Strategies Universal Prevention Strategies Individual and Family Level Community Level Societal Level Primary Prevention Strategies Individual and Family Level Community Level Societal Level Secondary Prevention Strategies Individual and Family Level Community Level Societal Level Tertiary Prevention Strategies Individual and Family Level Community Level Societal Level Societal Level Implementation on the Family Level Quaternary Prevention Strategies Individual Level Family Level Families of Origin Foster Families System-Level Interventions Disparities in CPA, Service Involvement, and Service Delivery Effectiveness of Prevention Programming Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 25 Child and Youth Fatality Review A Description of Child Fatality Review Teams The History of Child Fatality Review Teams Deaths of Young Children Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Infant Sleeping Practices Shaken Baby Syndrome/Abusive Head Trauma Child Deaths Involving Intimate Partners Information on CFRT Recommendations Regarding Young Children Deaths of Adolescents Adolescent Suicide Adolescent Homicide: Intimate Partner Fatalities The National Child Death Review Case Reporting System Key Points Summary and Conclusions: The Future Promise of Child Fatality Review Cross-References References Section IV: Neglect of Children and Adolescents 26 The Etiology of Child Neglect and a Guide to Addressing the Problem Introduction: The Need for Neglect Research The Etiology of Neglect Societal/Community Context Family Context Parent Factors Child Factors Summary Prevention and Intervention Societal-/System-Level Prevention Family-Focused Prevention Key Points Related to Child Neglect Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 27 The Nature of Neglect and Its Consequences Introduction: The Historical ``Neglect of Neglect´´ and Past Reviews Definitions of Child Neglect Conceptual Considerations The Heterogeneity and Dimensions of Neglect Measurement and Assessment Incidence and Prevalence of Neglect Consequences Cognitive Mental Health Physical Health Biological Key Points Related to Child Neglect Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 28 Child Neglect Introduction Physical Neglect Introduction Special Considerations Diagnostic Evaluation Treatment Nutritional Neglect Introduction Failure to Thrive Diagnostic Evaluation Outcomes Risk Factors and Causes Parent Child Interaction Treatment Severe Malnutrition and Fatal Nutritional Neglect Obesity Evaluation Treatment Educational Neglect Introduction Diagnostic Evaluation Emotional Neglect Introduction Diagnostic Evaluation Medical Neglect Introduction Diagnostic Evaluation Dental Neglect Autonomy Supervisory Neglect Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 29 Dental Neglect Introduction Dental Neglect Definition Signs of Dental Neglect Pathology of Dental Neglect Barriers to Recognition Recognition Requires Reporting Prevention Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References Section V: Sexual Abuse of Children and Adolescents 30 Sexual Abuse of Children Introduction History Foundations Definition of Sexual Abuse Effects of Sexual Abuse Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 31 Child Sexual Abuse Disclosure and Forensic Practice Introduction Disclosure of Child Sexual Abuse Forensic Practice Summary and Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References 32 Succeeding with Nonoffending Caregivers of Sexually Abused Children Introduction Caregiver Response to Abuse Disclosure Reaction to Disclosure Types of Frameworks for Understanding Caregiver Reactions Other Factors Contributing to Nonoffending Caregivers Reaction Factors for Improving Reaction to Disclosure How to Support Caregivers Engaging Support Systems Managing Professional Frustrations Communicating with Caregivers Interdisciplinary Collaboration Therapy for Nonoffending Caregivers Engaging Their Children in Evidence-Based Therapy Summary and Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References 33 Recognizing and Responding to Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Sexual Behaviors of Children: A Primer for Pare... Introduction The Critical Importance of Accessing Quality Resources and Expertise Developmentally Appropriate Sexual Behaviors: Preadolescence Children Below the Age of Four Children Ages Four to Six Children Seven to Twelve Years of Age Concerning Sexual Behaviors: Preadolescence Developmentally Appropriate Sexual Behaviors: Adolescence and Teenage Years Developmentally Inappropriate/Deviant Sexual Behaviors: Adolescence and Teenage Years Deviant Level One Deviant Level Two Deviant Level Three What Causes Adolescents and Teenagers to Commit Sexual Offenses? Treatment for Juveniles Who Commit Sexual Offenses The Role of Schools in Addressing Problematic Sexual Behaviors The Risk of Re-offense A Hypothetical Case Study on Risk Assessment Re-uniting Siblings When There Has Been a Sexual Offense Investigative Challenges in Responding to Problematic Sexual Behaviors of Children Investigative Challenges: Questioning Child Offenders Investigative Challenges: Compliant Victims Investigative Challenges: Peer Pressure Key Points Summary Conclusion Resources Cross-References References 34 The People in Your Neighborhood: Working with Sexual and Gender Minority Youth as Victims of Sexual Violence Introduction Sexual and Gender Minority Youth Appreciating Terminology Understanding the Challenges Sexual and Gender Minority Youth at Increased Risk The Impact of Child Sexual Abuse Traumatic Sexualization Betrayal Stigmatization Powerlessness Considerations for Professionals Respecting Sexual and Gender Minority Youth Conducting Forensic Interviews with LGBTQ+ Children and Youth Therapeutic Interventions Summary and Conclusion Key Points Resources Cross-References Appendix A: Terminology References 35 Adult Sex Offenders Against Children: Etiology, Typologies, Investigation, Treatment, Monitoring, and Recidivism Introduction The Etiology of Child Sexual Abuse Typologies of Adult Male Child Sexual Abuse Offender Female Offenders of Child Sexual Abuse Prevalence of Female Offenders and Dynamics Typologies of Women Who Sexually Offend ``Grooming´´ Behavior: How Offenders Manipulate Victims and Institutions Investigating Sex Offenders Motive Evidence Involving the Offender or Victim Sexual Oddities Photographs Other Victims Incriminating Statements Overview of Adult Sex Offender Management and Treatment Sex Offender Evaluations Sex Offender Treatment Management of Sexual Offenders in the Community Managing Sex Offenders in a Religious Community Sex Offender Registration and Notification (SORN) Residence Restrictions and GPS Tracking Civil Commitment Recidivism Recidivism Rates Are Likely to Underestimate Re-offenses Methodological Factors Affecting Recidivism Rates The Development of Sex Offender Policy in the United Sates Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 36 State-of-the-Art Measures: Contemporary Views on Risk Assessment of Sexually Abusive Youth Risk Assessment Tools: Risk Prediction and Calibrated Risk Levels Construction of Risk Assessment Tools for Sexually Abusive Youth (Adjudicated and Non-adjudicated) Review of Risk Assessment Tools Risk and Protective Factors: Assessing Different Types of Sexually Abusive Youth (Adjudicated and Non-adjudicated) Children Ages 4 to 12 Years Sexually Abusive Youth with Low Intellectual Functioning Transgender Youth Sexually Abusive Female Youth Sexually Abusive Youth Who Are Inconspicuous Discussion Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 37 The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children Introduction Current Definitions Child Sex Trafficking Child Pornography Sex Tourism Legislative Response to CSEC Victim Characteristics Relationship Factors Family Conflict Community Factors Societal Pressures Societal Norms Gang Involvement Societal Factors Lack of Awareness Sexualization of Children Poverty Effects of CSEC Offender Characteristics Child Sex Trafficking Child Pornography Child Sex Tourism Cultural Considerations for Prevention and Intervention of CSEC Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 38 Abuse of Youth in Residential Settings/Institutions Introduction Outline of Contents I. The Crisis of Institutional Child Abuse in Residential Settings A. The Institution and Child Abuse B. Legal Efforts Against Maltreatment in the USA: Mandatory Reporting II. Non-correctional Institutional Environments for Youth A. Overview B. Maltreatment Risks and Realities III. Correctional Environments A. Overview B. Sexual Victimization C. Physical Victimization, Suicide, and Neglect IV. Institutional Environments and Children with Disabilities A. Overview B. Sexual Victimization C. Other Maltreatment Risks Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 39 Technology-Facilitated Child Abuse Introduction Increasing Scope and Severity of Technology-Facilitated Child Abuse Characteristics of Online Offenders Offender Grooming Tactics in the Digital Age Survivor Perspectives: The Impact of Technology-Facilitated Child Abuse Emerging Issues and Trends in Technology-Facilitated Child Abuse Cases Sextortion Online Gaming Live Streaming Going Dark Virtual Reality Remote Cloud Storage Encryption Key Points: Combatting Technology-Facilitated Child Abuse Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 40 Genital Examination Techniques Introduction Medical History Rapport Building Anatomy Female Genital Anatomy Male Genital Anatomy Female Pubertal Development Male Pubertal Development Medical Exam Female Genital Exam Male Genital Exam Anal Exam Acute Examinations Photo Documentation Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 41 Normal Examination Findings and Variants Introduction Newborn Hymen Hymenal Findings Additional Female Genital Anatomical Variants Normal Anal Variants Misconceptions Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 42 Acute Sexual Assault Evaluation of the Prepubertal Child Introduction The History Account of Events Additional History The Physical Exam The Anogenital Exam The Female Anogenital Examination The Male Anogenital Examination Forensic Evidence Collection Steps for Evidence Collection Photodocumentation Alternative Light Sources Testing for Sexually Transmitted Infections Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault Findings and Interpretation Forensic Evidence Interpretation Understanding DNA Evidence Spermatozoa and Seminal Fluid Markers Trace Evidence Analysis Clothing Analysis Forensic Evidence in Prepubertal Children The Use of Physical and Forensic Evidence in Criminal Proceedings Medical Management HIV Prophylaxis Sexually Transmitted Infection Prophylaxis Treatment of Injuries Addressing Physical and Mental Health Concerns Discharge Planning and Follow-Up Care Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 43 Abnormal Findings Diagnostic of Anogenital Trauma in Prepubertal Children Introduction The Medical Examination Prevalence of Abnormal Findings Among Prepubertal Children Mimickers of Genital Trauma Lichen Sclerosus et Atrophicus Urethral Prolapse Lysis of Labial Adhesions Accidental Genital Trauma Congenital Findings Examination Findings Diagnostic of Anogenital Trauma Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) STIs Diagnostic of Child Sexual Abuse Chlamydia Gonorrhea Syphilis Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Sexually Transmitted Infections Highly Suspicious for Child Sexual Abuse Trichomonas Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Suspicious for Child Sexual Abuse Herpes Condylomata Acuminata (Anogenital Warts) Healing of Anogenital Traumatic Injuries Follow-Up Examinations Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 44 Mimickers of Child Sexual Abuse Introduction Anatomic Variants and Congenital Conditions Normal Anogenital Anatomy and Physiologic Processes Mistaken for Sexual Abuse Injuries Normal Anogenital Anatomy Mistaken for Genital Injury Normal Anogenital Hyperpigmentation Normal Midline Variants Normal Anogenital Physiology Mistaken for Injury from Trauma Neonatal Menstruation Perianal Venous Congestion Anal Dilatation Congenital Malformations Mimicking Sexual Abuse Injuries Extravesicular Ureterocele Failure of Midline Fusion Diastasis Ani Dermatoses and Anogenital Discharge Anogenital Irritant Contact Dermatitis Diaper Dermatitis, Granuloma Gluteale Infantum, Jacquet Erosive Diaper Dermatitis, and Perianal Pseudoverrucous Papules and No... Anogenital Allergic Contact Dermatitis Vulvar Atopic Dermatitis Lichen Sclerosus Anogenital Psoriasis Vaginal Discharge and Foreign Bodies Infections Anogenital Infections not Caused by Sexual Contact Anogenital Infections Caused by Both Sexual and Nonsexual Contact Molluscum Contagiosum Condyloma Acuminatum Scabies Medical Conditions Medical Conditions Resulting in Displacement of Normal Anatomic Structures Urethral Prolapse Hemorrhoids Rectal Prolapse Nonabusive Vesicular and Ulcerative Conditions Crohn´s disease Behçet´s Disease Gynecologic Neoplasias Vascular and Lymphatic Conditions Hidradenitis suppurativa Enuresis and Encopresis Trauma Accidental Anogenital Trauma Straddle Injuries Impalement Injuries High-Pressure Water Injuries Crush Injuries Motor Vehicle Injuries Toilet Seat Penile Injuries Iatrogenic Trauma Hair Tourniquet Syndrome Medical Conditions Resulting in Trauma Lysed Labial Adhesions Anal Fissures Perianal Scar Physical Abuse of the Genitals Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Section VI: Emotional Abuse of Children and Adolescents 45 Psychological Maltreatment of Children: Influence Across Development Introduction Defining Psychological Maltreatment Prevalence of Psychological Maltreatment The Impact of Psychological Maltreatment on the Behavioral Health of Youth Infancy and Early Childhood Middle Childhood Adolescence Transition to Adulthood and Beyond Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 46 Psychological Maltreatment of Children and Youth: A Historical Perspective on the Right to Be Emotionally Safe Introduction An Ecological Perspective: Does X Cause Y? It Depends What Is Child Maltreatment? Negative Developmental Pathways Why Do Some Children Develop Negative Social Cognition? The Most Basic Human Rights of Children A Model of Psychological Maltreatment Summary and Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References 47 Bullying and Cyberbullying Throughout Adolescence Introduction Theory Trauma The Trauma-Informed Framework Risk Factors Gender Developmental Differences Disabilities Social Skills Deficits Sexual Orientation Outcomes Internalizing Outcomes Externalizing Outcomes Health-Related Outcomes School-Related Outcomes Long-Term Outcomes Relation to Other Forms of Interpersonal Violence Prevention and Intervention for Bullying Behavior School Anti-bullying Policies Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) Social Emotional Learning (SEL) The Combined Approach: PBIS and SEL School Bullying Prevention and Intervention Programs Cyberbullying Prevention Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Section VII: Family Violence and Teen Dating Violence 48 Mother-Child Attachment in Violent Contexts: Effect of Complex Trauma and Maternal Trauma History Introduction Outcomes of Witnessing Domestic Violence in Childhood Emotion Regulation Brain Development Mediating Factors Identified in Literature: Early Childhood and Complex Trauma Domestic Violence Assessment: Methodological Issues for Exposure in Early Childhood Ecological System of Child Maltreatment The Role of the Attachment Relationship in DV Contexts Maternal History of Trauma Parent-Child Interventions Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 49 Correlations Among Childhood Abuse and Family Violence, Prevention, Assessment, and Treatment from a Trauma-Focused Perspec... Introduction Child Abuse Family Violence Family Violence Perspectives Legislative Responses to Family Violence Prevalence of Family Violence Relationship of Child Abuse to Family Violence Treatment Perspectives Micro Interventions Mezzo Interventions Macro Interventions Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 50 Implications of Maltreatment for Young Children Introduction Trauma and Attachment Emotional, Behavioral, Cognitive, and Developmental Sequelae Neurocognitive Deficits Associated with Child Maltreatment, Supported by Research, Include Delays and Deficits in Working Memo... Implications of Child Maltreatment for Adult Functioning Societal Implications Resilience Policy Implications Summary and Conclusion References 51 Missing and Exploited Youth Introduction Tracking the Problem NISMART: Measuring the Problem Missing Children Cases Family Abductions International Family Abductions Reunifications in Family Abduction Cases Runaway and Homeless Youth Missing Benign Missing Involuntary: Lost, Stranded, or Injured State Resources Discrepancy in Services Nonfamily Abductions Abductions with Different Motives Infant Abductions False Allegations Key Points Summary Cross-References References 52 Youths´ Exposure to Violence in the Family Introduction Theoretical Models Related to Exposure to Family Violence Ecological Systems Theory Social Learning Theory Betrayal Trauma Theory Coercive Family Process Theory Stress Theory Developmental Psychopathology Theory Application of Theories Intimate Partner Violence Intimate Partner Violence Case Study Family Violence Pathway to Teenage Dating Violence Family Violence and Teen Dating Violence Case Study Family Violence Among Siblings Sibling Violence Case Study Informal Kinship Negative Peer Influence Informal Kinship Case Studies with Negative Peer Influence Case Two Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 53 Sibling Abuse of Other Children Introduction Historical Context Identification and Assessment Sibling Physical Abuse Distinguishing Between Nonviolent Sibling Conflict and Physical Abuse Identification of Sibling Sexual Abuse Distinguishing Between Normative Sibling Sexual Contact and Abuse Assessment of Sibling Abuse Definitions Sibling Physical Abuse [SPA] Sibling Sexual Abuse [SSA] Sibling Psychological Maltreatment [SPM] Prevalence Relationship to Other Forms of Family Violence Fathers and Sibling Aggression Couples and Sibling Aggression Risk and Protective Factors Cultural, Ethnic, and Gender Considerations Gender Considerations Research on Harmful Effects Sibling Physical Abuse Sibling Sexual Abuse Sibling Psychological Maltreatment Evidence-Based Treatment Strategies Case Illustration Current State of Research and Practice Policy and Prevention Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 54 Siblicide: The Psychology of Sibling Homicide Introduction Prevalence of Siblicide Offender and Victim Characteristics Offense Characteristics: Causes, Context, Settings, and Weapons Influence of Psychopathology Substance Use Influence of Developmental Disorders Influence of Family Systems Theoretical Perspectives Implications of This Research: Intervention and Treatment Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References 55 Teen Dating Violence and Stalking Introduction Definitions: Teen Dating Violence and Stalking Prevalence of TDV and Stalking Physical and Sexual TDV Prevalence Psychological and Online TDV Prevalence Stalking Prevalence Group Differences in TDV Prevalence Rates Risk Factors for TDV and Stalking Risk Factors for Perpetration Risk Factors for Victimization Consequences of TDV and Stalking Victimization Intervention Strategies for TDV and Stalking Intervention Strategies for TDV Intervention Strategies for Stalking Recommendations for Future Research Practical Implications for Students and Practitioners Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 56 Teen Dating Violence Policy: An Analysis of Teen Dating Violence Prevention Policy and Programming Introduction Teen Dating Violence Legislation Community-Based Participatory Research Focus on Individual Responsibility Is Limiting What Do the End-Users Have to Say? Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 57 Child Survivors of Intimate Partner Homicide: Wraparound Intervention Introduction Domestic Violence Fatality Reviews and Child Survivors of Intimate Partner Homicide The Research Informing the Emergence of ACASI The ACASI Program Challenges Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Section VIII: Cultural Issues Concerning Maltreatment of Children and Adolescents 58 Cultural Competence in the Field of Child Maltreatment Introduction: Cultural Competence in Child Maltreatment Prevention and Intervention Orienting Concepts Cultural competence Ethnic Culture Race Ecosystemic Framework Poverty and Child Abuse Treating Clients Fairly Ethnocentrism and Lack of Cultural Humility Bias Confronting Stereotypes Recognizing and Avoiding Microaggressions Understanding Variations in Help-Seeking Considering Issues of Language Tips for Working with Diverse Families Acquiring Demographic Information Joining with All Members of the Family Addressing Clients Properly Conveying Respect Reforming Systems Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 59 Recognizing and Responding to the Spiritual Impact of Child Abuse Introduction The Intersection Between Child Protection and Religion Sexual Abuse Physical Abuse Withholding Medical Care on the Basis of Religious Belief Torture The Spiritual Impact of Child Abuse and Neglect Positive and Negative Religious Influences Before, During, and After the Forensic Interview Effective MDT Responses to the Spiritual Impact of Child Abuse Coordinating Mental Health and Spiritual Care Coordinating Medical and Spiritual Care A Faith Leader or Chaplain on the MDT Care in Action: A Promising Practice for Faith and Child Protection Collaborations Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References 60 The Experience of Children and Families Involved with the Child Welfare System Introduction Conditions Leading to Involvement with the Child Welfare System Experiences of Children and Families During an Encounter with the Child Welfare System Services Provided During a Family´s Engagement with the Child Welfare System Summary and Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References 61 Interpersonal Violence and Forced Displacement Introduction History and Current Context Guidance for Working with Forcibly Displaced Populations Key Legal Instruments Vulnerable and Priority Groups Other Forced Displacement Categories Effects of Interpersonal and Other Violence on the Displaced Principles of Reducing Interpersonal Violence Displacement-Focused Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method Studies Good Practice Interventions: Gender-Based Violence Prevention Levels of Psychosocial Distress Mental Health and Psychosocial Support (MHPSS) Community Mobilization and Support Psychological Considerations Healthcare for People with Severe Mental Illness Key Policy Recommendations Summary, Limitations, and Conclusion Cross-References References 62 Child Maltreatment in Military Families: Risk and Protective Factors, and Family-Systems Interventions Prevalence of Child Maltreatment in the Military Sector Child Neglect Child Physical Abuse Child Emotional Abuse Child Sexual Abuse Limitations in Comparisons between Military and Civilian Sectors General Risk Factors for Child Maltreatment Military-Specific Risk Factors for Child Maltreatment Deployment Visible and Invisible Wounds Limitations in Existing Deployment Research Protective Factors: How to Promote Military Family Resilience Military Initiatives Supporting Parents and Children Evidence-Informed Interventions Developed for Military Families Families OverComing under Stress (FOCUS) After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools (ADAPT) Strong Families Strong Forces Other Evidence-Based Programs for Use with Military Families Conclusions and Goals for the Future Key Points Cross-References References Section IX: Consequences and Interventions for the Maltreatment of Children and Adolescents 63 Neurobiological Consequences of Child Maltreatment Introduction Brain Development, Structure, Function, and Network Organization Child Maltreatment and Brain Development Brain Plasticity Child Maltreatment and Dysregulated Stress Reactivity Stress Response and Recovery Cortisol Inflammatory, Immune, and Electrophysiological Response Child Maltreatment and Brain Structure and Functionality Structural Brain Changes Functional Brain Changes Child Maltreatment and Behavioral Epigenetics DNA Methylation (DNAm) Telomere Shortening and Accelerated Biological Aging Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 64 The Intersection of Trauma and Substance Use in Adolescent Populations Introduction Prevalence and Types of Trauma Exposure Experienced in Adolescence Traumatic Stress Exposure: Signs and Symptoms in Adolescents Prevalence and Type of Substance Use Experienced in Adolescence Substance Use: Signs and Symptoms in Adolescents Interrelation of Trauma and Substance Use in Adolescents Co-occurrence of Substance Use Difficulties and Trauma Exposure A Behavioral Approach to Understanding the Interrelation of Substance Use and Trauma Exposure Screening and Assessment Considerations for Substance Use Difficulties in Youth Exposed to Trauma Biological-Based Tests Screening Instruments Multi-scale Questionnaires Structured and Semi-structured Interviews Treatment Considerations of Co-occurring Substance Use Difficulties and Traumatic Stress Symptoms Integrating Treatment for Substance Use Difficulties and Traumatic Stress Symptoms Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 65 Forensic Interviewing Introduction The Rise of Children´s Advocacy Centers The Leadership Role of the National Institute on Child Health and Human Development (NICHD): Section on Social and Emotional D... The Interdisciplinary Consensus Statement The Development of the NICHD Investigative Interview Protocol The Proliferation of Forensic Interview Protocols and Guidelines The CornerHouse Model The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Model RADAR The Ten Step Investigative Interview America Professional Society on the Abuse of Children´s Pioneering Role National Children´s Advocacy Center´s Child Forensic Interview Structure Child Forensic Interviewing: Best Practices Number of Interviews Who Are Forensic Interviewers? Questions and Probes Used in Forensic Interviews Uses of Media in Forensic Interviews Documenting Forensic Interviews Issues of Quality Control in Forensic Interviewing The Forensic Interview in the Broader Context of Investigation Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References 66 Linking Trauma-Informed Screening and Assessment Practices Across Child-Serving Systems Introduction Essential Components of Trauma-Informed Screening Structured Process Creating Emotional Safety Family Engagement Addressing Secondary Traumatic Stress Cultural Responsiveness Developmental Considerations Data-Driven Decision-Making Determining Which Trauma-Informed Screening Tool Is Best for Your Agency Administration of Trauma-Informed Screening Tools Commonly Used Screening Tools Applying a Complex Trauma Framework in the Context of Trauma-Informed Screening and Assessment Screening for Complex Trauma: Information for Child-Serving Professionals Linking Screening to Assessment and Diagnosis with a Complex Trauma Framework Assessment of Complex Trauma by Mental Health Professionals General Guidelines for the Assessment of Complex Trauma The Effective Implementation of the Trauma-Informed Screening and Assessment Processes Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 67 Assessing Causes of Children´s Parent Rejection in Child Custody Cases: Differentiating Parental Alienation from Child Sexu... Introduction Evidence That Alienation Is Over-Valued in Child Custody Cases Use of Alienation Allegations Power of Alienation Allegations Multidimensional Assessment of Causes of Parent Rejection in Child Custody Cases with CSA, Psychological Maltreatment, Adverse... Overview of the Multidimensional Assessment Protocol Assessment of Children´s CSA Statements Assessment of Psychological Maltreatment Assessment of Adverse Parenting Assessment of Alienation Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 68 Treatment Considerations for Youth Exposed to Interpersonal Violence Introduction Prevalence of Interpersonal Violence Importance of Psychosocial Treatment Comprehensive Assessment Factors to Consider in Treatment Planning Barriers to Treatment Provider Training Youth and Family Characteristics Caregiver Involvement Types of Treatments Available Core Components Treatment-Specific Considerations Early Intervention Highlighted Treatments Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) Child Parent Psychotherapy (CPP) Structured Psychotherapy for Adolescents Responding to Chronic Stress (SPARCS) Key Points Summary Cross-References References 69 Mental Health and Healthcare System Responses to Adolescent Maltreatment Introduction How Risks and Effects of Adolescent Maltreatment Are Conveyed Biological Components of Adolescent Maltreatment Psychosocial Components of Adolescent Maltreatment Trauma-Informed Principles Realize the Widespread Impact of Trauma and Potential Paths for Recovery Recognize Signs and Symptoms Respond by Fully Integrating Knowledge about Trauma into Policies, Procedures, and Practices Patient/Client-Related Policies Staff-Related Policies Organization-Related Policies Respond with Effective Treatment Resist Retraumatization Integration of Healthcare and Mental Health Systems Background and Barriers Framework for Integrated Care Coordinated Care Co-located Care Integrated Care Special Considerations Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 70 The Impact of Neighborhood-Based Interventions on Reducing Child Maltreatment Introduction Defining Neighborhood Programs Within a Socio-ecological Approach Evidence of Neighborhood-Based Treatments in Preventing Child Maltreatment Targeting Family- and Community-Level Risks for Child Maltreatment Examples of Current Programs and Policies Barriers to Service Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References Section X: Recognizing and Responding to Maltreatment of Children and Adolescents 71 Child Maltreatment: Mandated Reporting Introduction Recognition of Child Maltreatment and the Origins of Mandated Reporting Mandatory Reporting Legislation Universal Mandated Reporting Ethics of Mandated Reporting Barriers to Reporting Among Professional Reporters Ambiguity of Evidence of Certain Types of Maltreatment Struggling with Identifying Child Maltreatment or with the Reporting Process Fear of Consequences of Reporting Lack of Institutional Support Concerns about Negative Consequences for Children and Families Perceptions of the Efficacy of Child Protective Services Training for Mandated Reporting Online Instruction and Training Advantages and Disadvantages of Mandated Reporting Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 72 Child Welfare System: Structure, Functions, and Best Practices Introduction The History of Public Child Welfare Services Agencies The Goals of Child Welfare Services The Structure of Child Welfare Services Steps in the Child Welfare Services Response Reporting Screening Investigation Substantiation Alternative Response Ongoing Services Child Placement Likelihood of Outcomes of CWS Involvement How Child Welfare Services Helps Intact Families Building Capacity for Self-Help Engaging in Help-Seeking How Child Welfare Services Helps When Children Are Placed Out-of-Home Casework When Children Are in Out-of-Home Care Family Search Working Toward Reunification Permanency Planning Research on the Impact of Child Welfare Services Evidence-Based Practice in Child Welfare Services Key Points Summary and Conclusion Public Child Welfare Services Agencies Are a Necessary Part of Our Society More Needs to Be Learned About How to Help Families Involved with CWS Child Protection Is a Community Responsibility Reason for Optimism About Child Welfare Services Cross-References References 73 The Child Welfare System: Problems, Controversies, and Future Directions Introduction Overview of the Child Welfare System in Brief History of the Child Welfare System The Development of the Child Welfare System Roots of Racial Disparity in the Child Welfare System Relevant Legislative Foci of the Child Welfare System Discussion Problems and Controversies Future Directions Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 74 The Criminal Justice Response to Child and Youth Victimization Introduction Children´s and Adolescents´ Risk of Experiencing Criminal Interpersonal Violence The Juvenile Victim Justice System Reporting to Police Factors Affecting Reporting to Police Investigation The Multidisciplinary Team Children´s Advocacy Centers Prosecution Factors Predicting Prosecution Suspect Confession Evidence Child Age and Sex Emotions, Mental Health, and Parental Support Perpetrator Characteristics Case Characteristics CACs and SART Teams and Prosecution Child Victims´ Testimony The Effect of Prosecution on Child Victims Restorative Justice Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 75 The Law and Policy of Child Maltreatment Introduction Overview: Two Systems Respond Civil Child Protection - Constitutional Framework Federalism - The Role of States in Child Protection The Role of Federal Statutes Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act Multiethnic Placement Act and the Interethnic Placement Provisions Adoption and Safe Families Act Family First Prevention Services Act Criminal Law´s Response to Child Maltreatment Criminal Prosecution of Child Maltreatment - Constitutional Framework Prosecutorial Discretion Constitutional Protections for Defendants First Amendment The Fifth Amendment The Sixth Amendment The Eighth Amendment Victim´s Rights Federal Funding Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References 76 Collecting Child Victimization Information from Youth and Parents: Ethical and Methodological Considerations Ethical Considerations Can Children Be Harmed by Asking About Child Abuse and Exposure to Violence? Risk of Generating Participant Distress Risk of Retaliation from a Third Party General Principles for Minimizing the Risks of Survey Participation Introducing the Survey Resources to Minimize Distress Steps to Minimize Risk of Retaliation and Informational or Social Risks Consent Procedures When Collecting Sensitive Data on Children and Youth What Is Involved in Obtaining Informed Consent? Consent Procedures and Mandatory Reporting of Research Participants Do Disclosures Drop When Consent Forms Mention Mandatory Reporting or Limited Confidentiality? Methodological Considerations Nonresponse and Data Quality in Child Victimization Surveys Unit-Level Nonresponse: Refusals and Noncontacts Survey Mode and Disclosure of Sensitive Information Using Incentives in Child Victimization Research Issues of Victimization Recall and Data Quality Utilizing Caregiver Proxy Reports of Violence Exposure among Younger Children Summary and Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References 77 Responding to Child Abuse During a Pandemic Introduction Educate Mandated Reporters About Their Role of Protecting Children During the Pandemic Educate the Public to Be on the Lookout for Signs of Abuse Encourage Students to Look Out for One Another Make a List of At-Risk Children and Then Develop a Plan to Check on Them Develop Safety Plans and Affirmative Resources for LGBTQIA+ Youth CPS Workers Must Adjust Case and Safety Plans for Children Recognize that Children May Find Different Ways to Communicate Abuse Accelerate Victim Services and Court Preparation Work with Youth-Serving Organizations to Modify Their Policies During the Pandemic Continue with Safety Checks Resist Defense Attorney Initiatives that Increase the Risk of Abuse Understand Enhanced Risks to Online Safety and Act Accordingly Balance the Risk of a Health Threat with the Risk of Child Abuse Prepare for the Unique Challenges Facing Rural Communities Rely on Your MDT and the CAC Model Consider the Mechanics of Safely Conducting Forensic Interviews and Witness Preparation in the COVID-19 Era Poly-victimization Screening Consider the Deterrent Utility of Proactive Operations Recognize Shifting, Safety-Focused Trends in Evidence Collection, Submission, and Processing Ensure Relevant MDT Members Have Adequate Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Use Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment and Follow Hygienic Best Practices Develop a Vicarious Trauma Plan for the MDT Recognize the Value of Spiritual Care for Child Abuse Victims and Child Protection Professionals Develop Plans to Respond to Abuse Once the Pandemic Subsides Turn the MDTs Short-Term Plans into Long-Term Innovations Reach Out for Assistance Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Section XI: Community Violence and Abuse: Victimization and Perpetration 78 Community Violence Overview: Guiding Principles, Critical Issues, and Prevention and Intervention Strategies Introduction: What Is Community Violence? Available Data to Study Community Violence Sociodemographic and Geographic Characteristics Associated with Community Violence Risk and Protective Factors Prevention and Intervention Strategies Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 79 Commonalities and Overlap Between Victims and Offenders Introduction The Role of Routine Activity and Lifestyles in the Victim-Offender Overlap The Cycle of Violence Developmental and Longitudinal Examinations of the Victim-Offender Overlap Gender, Intimate Partner Violence, and the Victim-Offender Overlap What Does It Mean? Policy Implications Based on the Victim-Offender Overlap The Future Study of the Victim-Offender Overlap Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 80 Microaggressions and Implicit Biases: Rooted in Structural Racism and Systemic Oppression Introduction Implicit Bias as a Platform for Microaggressions Microaggressions as Manifestations of Structural Oppression Microaggressions and Structural Racism in the Criminal Justice System Microaggressions and Structural Racism in School and Educational Systems Microaggressions and Structural Racism in the Workplace Microaggressions and Structural Racism in Neighborhoods and Communities Societal Impact of Microaggressions and Implicit Bias Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 81 Violence in Schools Violent Crimes Nonfatal Violence Aggression in Schools Harassment Prevention Strategies Security Measures Disciplinary Practices Threat Assessment School Climate Improvement Programs Mental Health Services Policy Recommendations Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 82 Empowerment Strategies and Youth Community Organizing Introduction Defining Community Violence The Youth Perspective: What is Violence? The Prevalence of Youth Community Violence Exposure Feeling Unsafe: Perception of Violence Matters Repercussions of CVE Youth as Agents of Change Positive Youth Development, Empowerment Theory, and Community Organizing Positive Youth Development Empowerment Theory Community Organizing Merging Perspectives: Youth Community Organizing Models of Youth Community Organizing Youth Community Organizing Outcomes Social-Emotional Cognitive and Academic Identity Civic and Political Behavioral Pathways to Long-Term Outcomes Key Factors in Producing Positive Outcomes Opportunity Structure Youth-Adult Partnership Fostering Youth Empowerment Current Grassroots Movements Never Again MSD Black Lives Matter Other Local and Global Movements Recommendations for Research, Practice, and Policy Future Directions for Research Future Directions for Practice and Policy Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 83 Hate Crimes: A Special Category of Victimization An Introduction to Hate Crime Historical Context Legislation Data Collection and Measurement Comparisons Between UCR/NIBRS and NCVS Patterns and Trends How Much Hate Crime Is There? Underreporting of Hate Crimes Victim Reporting Police Misclassification of Crimes Law Enforcement Participation in Hate Crime Reporting Bias Motivation Specific Bias Types Hate Debate Perpetrators of Hate Crimes Offender Motivation Fighting/Preventing Hate Formal Hate Crime Prevention Informal Prevention Methods The Uniqueness of Hate Crime Future Research and Policy Response Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Web Resources 84 Taking Stock of Gang Violence: An Overview of the Literature Introduction Defining Gang Violence Situating Violence in Gang Life Joining a Gang and Gang Member Violent Victimization Violent Victimization of Female Members Trends in Gang Violence Temporal Patterns in Gang Violence The Spatial and Social Distribution of Gang Violence Facilitating Violence with Technology Interventions Aimed at Reducing Gang Violence Gang Activity Prevention Gang Activity Suppression Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 85 Gang Violence: Examining Ecological, Cultural, Social Psychological, and Psychological Factors Across the Life Course Introduction An Overview of Violence and Gang Membership Over the Life Course Ecological Context of Gang Violence Gang Culture and Violence Social Psychological Approaches to Gang Violence Psychological Approaches to Gang Violence Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 86 The Juvenile Justice Response to Violence Introduction The Scale of Youth Violence The Juvenile Court´s Role in Violence Prevention Juvenile Justice Response to Youth Violence Effective Responses to Youth Violence Public Health Approach: Changing Social Norms with Credible Messengers Other Models Law Enforcement Approach: Focused Deterrence Social Services Approach: Individualized Therapies and Supports Cognitive Behavioral Interventions Family Treatment Trauma-Informed Practice Summary and Conclusion References 87 Girls in Juvenile Justice Introduction Background Intersectionality Trends and Contributing Factors to Girls in Juvenile Justice Mental Health and Substance Abuse Interpersonal, Family, and Community Violence Sexual Abuse Sexual Assault in Justice Facilities Human Trafficking and Sex Trafficking Child Abuse, Maltreatment, Neglect, and Delinquency: Crossover Youth Trauma Explicit and Implicit Bias Evidence-Based Recommendations Improve Gender- and Culturally Responsive Programming Recognize Intersectionality for All Youthful Offenders and Reduce Group Disparities Increase Trauma-Informed Services Abolish Prostitution-Related Offenses for Minors Increase Diversion Opportunities Reduce Reliance on Detention (Especially for Status and Non-violent Offenders) Summary and Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References 88 Sex and Labor Trafficking: Trauma-Informed Themes Toward a Social Justice Approach Introduction Prevalence Scope Risk Factors and Vulnerability Sociocultural Factors Psychosocial Factors Identification and Referral Health Implications Pre-trafficking Phase or Recruitment Stage Trafficking Phase or Exploitation Stage Post-trafficking Phase or Integration/Reintegration Stage Trauma Responses and Patterns Clinical Treatment and Intervention Current Responses and Recommendations Policy and Education Multilevel Trauma-Informed Services Prevention Survivor Engagement and Leadership Future Directions Summary and Conclusions Key Points Cross-References References 89 Sexual and Gender-Based Violence as Warfare Introduction History and the Current State Why Do Wars Breed Rape? Defining War Rape War Rape Rape as Genocide Rape as Torture How Prevalent Is SGBV in the Context of War, Armed Conflict, and Forced Migration? Vulnerable Groups Women and Children Men Pregnancy and Children Born Out of Rape Child Soldiers Refugees Physical, Psychological, and Social Impact of War Rape Societal Impact Mental Health and Psychosocial Supports for Survivors of SGBV Grassroots Community Initiatives ``City of Joy´´ ``Living Peace´´ MHPSS for Refugees, Survivors of Sexual Violence Self-Care Other Considerations and Controversies Potentially Harmful Practices Disproportionate Attention Given to One Group MHPSS for Perpetrators Unintended Consequences of Helping Interventions Birth Control Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Section XII: Definitions, Prevalence, Terms, and Tactics for Intimate Partner Violence 90 Introduction to the Intimate Partner Violence Section: History, Progress, and Lessons Learned Historical Perspective IPV Part: Organizational Structure and Emerging Themes Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 91 Intimate Partner Violence: Terms, Forms, and Typologies Introduction Key Terms Historical Usage Current Usage Foundational Criteria for Partner Maltreatment Harm Criterion Acts (and Omissions) Impacts Exclusions Definitions in Key Diagnostic/Classification Systems Partner Physical Abuse Partner Psychological Abuse Partner Sexual Abuse Partner Neglect Legal Definitions US Legal Definitions International Legal Definitions Severity Terms Used in Typologies and Treatment Who Perpetrates IPV (Typologies) Theories of IPV Terms Common to IPV Treatment Summary and Conclusion References 92 Cyber Abuse in Romantic Relationships Introduction Types of Cyber Abuse That Occur Within Romantic Relationships Emotional/Psychological Cyber Abuse Ignoring/Exclusion Cyber Sexual Abuse Intrusion/Monitoring/Stalking Behaviors Risk Factors Hostile Sexism Substance Use Bullying Technology Use Sexual Risk Behaviors Anxious Attachment Assessment Methods and Measurement Issues Regarding Cyber Abuse Measures Assessing Nonsexual Forms of Cyber Abuse Measures Assessing Sexual and Nonsexual Forms of Cyber Abuse Psychometric Properties and Limitations of Existing Measures of Cyber Abuse Cyber Abuse Prevention Suggestions for Potential Victims, Parents, and Clinicians Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 93 Advances in Understanding and Addressing the Link Between Pet Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence Introduction Summary of the Link Between Pet Abuse and IPV Current Research Trends Severity of Pet Abuse and Severity of Domestic Violence The Decision-Making Process of Pet-Owning Domestic Violence Victims Seeking Safety Questions Asked About Pets at Domestic Violence Intake and Crisis Centers Typologies of Offenders Policy Responses Animal Cruelty Laws Including Pets on Orders of Protection Designating Animal Abuse as a Form of Domestic Violence Added Penalties for Exposing Children to Animal Cruelty Federal Action: Farm Bill/Pet and Women Safety Act Federal Action: Collection of Animal Cruelty Crime Data by the FBI Cross-Reporting and Cross-Training Restricting Gun Possession Next Steps Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 94 Intimate Partner Violence and Intimate Partner Stalking The Intersection Between Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence Stalking Prevalence Defining Stalking Intimate Partner Stalking Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Section XIII: Theories and Key Factors for Intimate Partner Violence 95 Feminist Perspectives of Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse (IPV/A) Introduction The Development of Feminist Perspectives Patriarchy Types of Feminist Perspectives Radical Feminism Liberal Feminism Marxist Feminism and Socialist Feminism Postmodern Feminism The Women´s Movement Women´s Movement: First Wave (1830s-Early 1900s) Women´s Movement: Second Wave (1960s-1980s) Women´s Movement: Third Wave (1990s-Present) Feminist Perspectives and Race Intersectionality More Intersectional Feminist Perspectives Masculinities and IPV/A Feminist Theorizing About IPV/A Cycle of Violence Learned Helplessness and Battered Women Syndrome Patriarchy and Coercive Control Summary Directions for Future Research Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References 96 Masculinity and Violence Against Women from a Social-Ecological Perspective: Implications for Prevention Introduction Measuring Masculinity Individual Level of Social Ecology Community and Societal Levels of Social Ecology Association Between Masculinity and IPV/SV Individual and Relational Levels of the Social Ecology Community and Societal Levels of the Social Ecology Prevention Approaches Individual and Relational Levels of the Social Ecology Community and Societal Levels of the Social Ecology Implications for Prevention and Future Directions Caveats Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 97 Psychological Theories of Intimate Partner Violence Introduction Theoretical Overview Cognitive-Behavioral Models Trauma-Informed Models of IPV Psychopathology-Stress Models of IPV The I3 Model: A Multifactorial Psychological Theory of IPV Perpetration Clinical Implications Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References 98 Substance Use and Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration Introduction Previous Literature Reviews Theoretical Frameworks Metatheoretical Approach: The Instigating-Impelling-Inhibiting (``I3´´) Model Clinical Implications Future Research Summary and Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References 99 Intimate Partner Violence Across the Lifespan: Dyadic Theory and Risk and Protective Factors Introduction Theoretical Approaches Typological Approaches Dyadic Theoretical Approaches Theory Related to the Association Between Age and Aggression Reviews of Risk Factors Early Reviews on Risk Factors Reviews of Risk Factors in the Last Decade Risk Factor Summary from Capaldi et al. (2012) Demographic Risk Factors and the Role of Age Exposure to Interparent IPV and Experience of Maltreatment in Childhood Protective Family Factors Social Risk Factors Behavioral Risk Factors Impulsivity, Anger, Hostility, and Traumatic Brain Injury Substance Use Relationship Factors Gender Issues Other Recent Reviews Cumulative and Compounded Risk Factors Assortative Partnering Do Risk Factors Differ by Severity of Violence? Recent Work Testing the DDS Model Key Points Summary and Conclusions Implications for Future Research Prevention Implications Cross-References References 100 Clarifying the Complex Roles of Power and Control in Advancing Theories of Intimate Partner Violence Introduction Power and Control in the Context of IPV Traditional Definitions of Power Marital Power Refined Family Violence Studies of Marital Power and IPV Emerging Theories of Power and IPV Internal Power and IPV Coercive Control and IPV Defining Coercive Control Coercive Control and Abuse Measuring Coercive Control Coercive Control and IPV Summary and Conclusion Key Points References 101 Relation Between Exposure to Parental Intimate Partner Violence During Childhood and Children´s Functioning Introduction Psychological/Emotional/Behavioral Social Cognitive/Intellectual/Academic Physiological/Physical Sleep Moderators Individual-Level Moderators Relationship-Level Moderators Implications for Research, Practice, and Policy Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 102 Intergenerational Transmission of Intimate Partner Violence: Summary and Current Research on Processes of Transmission Introduction What Is the Intergenerational Transmission of Violence? What Is the Evidence for Intergenerational Transmission of IPV? Theories of Intergenerational Transmission of IPV: Starting Points New Theoretical Models: Indirect Transmission of IPV Which Mechanisms of Transmission Are Most Promising? Three Cutting-Edge Mechanisms of Transmission Perinatal Trauma as an Indirect Mechanism of IPV Transmission Key Concepts Evidence for the Role of Distal Maternal Antenatal Trauma History in IPV Transmission Evidence for Perinatal Stress Associated with IPV as a Mechanism of Violence Transmission Neurobiological Mechanisms of Intergenerational IPV Risk Transmission Key Concepts Evidence for Neurobiological Mechanisms of Transmission Developmental Psychopathology Key Concepts Evidence for Developmental Psychopathology as a Mechanism of Violence Transmission Future Research Directions Clinical Implications for Prevention Summary and Conclusions Key Points Cross-References References 103 Neuropsychological and Psychophysiological Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence Introduction Neuropsychological Findings IPV Perpetrators Clinical Implications IPV Victims Structural Brain Changes PTSD Studies and Cognitive Effects Cardiovascular Measures of Autonomic Nervous System Activity The Relation Between Heart Rate Reactivity, Emotionally Aggressive Behavior, and General Violence in Batterers Failure to Replicate Gottman et al.´s (1995) Findings The Autonomic Nervous System: Measuring Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Activity Heart Rate Physiological Measures of Sympathetic Activity: Skin Conductance (SC) and Pre-ejection Period (PEP) Physiological Measures of Parasympathetic Activity: Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia Neuroendocrine System, Blood Sugar Regulation, and Immune Functioning Within IPV Perpetration Blood Sugar Regulation Immune Functioning Physiological Correlates Among IPV Victims Further Directions and Conclusion: Psychophysiological Correlates of IPV Perpetrators and Survivors Clinical Implications Key Points Cross-References References Section XIV: Intersectionality with Respect to Intimate Partner Violence 104 Inclusion and Exclusion: Intersectionality and Gender-Based Violence Introduction Origins Definitional Clarity and Terms Patriarchy, Intimate Partner Violence: Inclusions and Exclusions Why Is Intersectionality Necessary in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence? How to ``Do´´ Intersectional Casework and Advocacy Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 105 Intersectionality and Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse: IPV and People with Disabilities Introduction Risk Factors/Vulnerability Isolation Perpetrators Dependency Lack of Identification System and Cultural Barriers Resilience Factors Intersecting Identities Proposed Frameworks for Cultural Relevance Trauma-Informed Care Intersectionality Bernie´s Story: Intersections of Race, Sexual Orientation, Gender Expression, Substance Use, and Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) Bernie´s Story Contextual Considerations for Case Analysis Case Analysis Using a Culturally Responsive, Trauma-Informed, Intersectional Framework Micro/Mezzo/Macro Level Recommendations for Practitioners, Advocates, and Researchers/Scholars Recommendations for Direct Practice Recommendations for Community and Organizational Level Practice Recommendations for Policy Advocacy Future Research Recommendations Key Points and Conclusion Relevance to National Plan to End Interpersonal Violence Across the Lifespan Cross-References References 106 Intimate Partner Abuse in Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Queer, Transgender and Two-Spirit (LGBQ/T and TS) Communities Introduction A Note on Language Experiences of Multiple Traumas in the Lives of LGBQ/T and Two-Spirit Individuals and Communities Prevalence Data Rates of Intimate Partner Violence in LGBQ/T Communities Prevalence of Partner Abuse in LGBQ/T Immigrant and Refugee Communities Prevalence of Partner Abuse in Black LGBQ/T and Same-Gender Loving Communities Prevalence of Partner Abuse in Two-Spirit Communities Dynamics of Partner Abuse in LGBQ/T Communities Dynamics of Partner Abuse Specific to Transgender Communities Cultural Context of Partner Abuse in LGBQ/T Immigrant and Refugee Communities Cultural Context of Abuse in Two-Spirit Communities Cultural Context of Partner Abuse in Black LGBQ/T and Same-Gender Loving Communities Barriers for LGBQ/T Survivors Seeking Help The Lack of Refuge in Sanctuary Systems for Transgender and Gender Non-conforming Individuals Culturally Specific Practices and Innovations in LGBQ/T and Two-Spirit Programs and Communities Holistic, Trauma-Responsive Practices for Responding to LGBQ/T Survivors of IPV Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References 107 Intimate Partner Violence in Tribal Communities: Sovereignty, Self-Determination, and Framing Introduction Critical Definitions ``Indian´´ ``Indian Country´´ Overview The Experience of Violence for American Indians and Alaska Natives Root Causes of Violence The Effect of Intimate Partner Violence and Related Crime on Tribal Communities Tribal Sovereignty Legal Barriers to Safety for AI/AN Survivors of Violence Jurisdictional Issues Criminal Jurisdiction Issues The Indian Country Crimes Act (18 U.S.C. § 1152) Major Crimes Act (1885) Public Law 280 (18 U.S.C. § 1162 ) Oliphant v. Suquamish The Tribal Law and Order Act The Violence Against Women Act Civil Jurisdiction Issues Civil Jurisdiction in Indian Country Generally Tribal Protection Orders and Enforcement Issues Special Jurisdictional Issues Related to Region Alaska Maine Additional Intersectional Issues Affecting AI/AN People Historical Trauma Housing Substance Abuse and Alcoholism Child Welfare Issues Poverty Geographic Remoteness Lack of Law Enforcement Resources Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls Severe Lack of Tribally Created or Native Run Victim Services Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 108 How Domestic Violence Impacts Immigrant Victims Introduction Abuser-Generated Risks Physical and Sexual Abuse Emotional Abuse Community-Generated Risks Cultural and Religious Concerns Language Barriers System-Generated Risks Lack of Familiarity with the US Legal System and Supportive Services Discrimination Economic Barriers Children and Child Custody Immigration Status Immigration Legal Protections Background Battered Spouse Waiver VAWA Self-Petition Cancellation of Removal Proceedings Under VAWA U Visas for Victims of Crime T Visas for Victims of Human Trafficking Work Authorization for Abused Spouses of A, E (iii), G, and H Visa Holders Asylum Certain Limits on Immigration Enforcement Related to Abuse Accessibility of Immigration Protections Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 109 Intimate Partner Violence Among Latina Survivors: Unique Considerations, Strategies, and Opportunities Introduction Prevalence of IPV Among Latinas Consequences of IPV Exposure Barriers to Care Immigration Lack of Economic Security Language Access Help-Seeking Patterns and Strategies Intervention Programs and Their Efficacy with Latina Survivors Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 110 Gender-Based Violence and Culturally Specific Advocacy in Asian and Pacific Islander Communities Introduction Demographics Analyzing Root Causes Gender Oppression over the Life Course Culture: Socio-cultural, Community, and System Norms Patriarchy and Power Domestic Violence in API Communities in the USA Scope of the Problem Vulnerabilities and Barriers Differing Dynamics of Domestic Violence Other Domestic Violence Trends in API Contexts Culturally Specific Intervention: A-Z Advocacy Model for API Survivors Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 111 The Intersectionality of Intimate Partner Violence in the Black Community Introduction Intersecting Identities Ethnic Identity Black Caribbeans African Immigrants Socioeconomic Status Age Sexual Orientation Gender Identity Multiple Forms of Victimization Intimate Partner Violence Nonfatal Strangulation Domestic Homicide Reproductive Coercion Historical Trauma Structural Violence Racial Discrimination Concentrated Neighborhood Disadvantage Homelessness Institutional Violence Community Violence Multiple Vulnerabilities Physical Health Problems Physical Injury Physical Health Problems Sexually Transmitted Infections Mental Health Problems Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Depression Substance Use/Abuse Culturally Specific Practices The Asha Project/Asha Family Services: Milwaukee, Wisconsin The Grady Nia Project in Atlanta, Georgia Culturally Based Resources Key Points Conclusion Culturally Based Resources Recommended Culturally Based Programs Recommended Technical Assistance Providers Additional Resources Recommended Cross-References References Section XV: Prevention of Intimate Partner Violence 112 Best Available Evidence for Preventing Intimate Partner Violence Across the Life Span Introduction Strategies for Preventing Intimate Partner Violence Across the Life Span Key Points Summary, Conclusions, and Future Directions Cross-References References 113 The Danger Assessment: An Instrument for the Prevention of Intimate Partner Homicide Intimate Partner Homicide Assessing Risk for Intimate Partner Homicide Risk Factors for IPV Re-assault and IPH Perpetration The Danger Assessment Development of the Danger Assessment The Psychometric Properties of the Danger Assessment Extensions of the Danger Assessment The Danger Assessment-5 (DA-5) The Lethality Screen The Danger Assessment for Law Enforcement (DA-LE) The Danger Assessment for Immigrant Women (DA-I) The Danger Assessment-Circle (DA-Circle) The Danger Assessment-Revised (DA-R) The Danger Assessment as a Tool for Safety Planning Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 114 Community-Informed Risk Assessment in Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse Cases: Origins, Development, and Deployment Introduction Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse (IPV/A) Risk Assessment in IPV/A Cases Historical Background Research and Science on IPV/A Risk Assessment Field Operationalization Limitations and Concerns The Community Informed Risk Assessment (CIRA) Concept in Arizona Historical Background Operational Philosophy and Practice The APRAIS Tool and Protocol Relationship to the Rule of Law Early Outcomes and Challenges Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 115 Firearms, Domestic Violence, and Dating Violence: Abusers´ Use of Firearms Violence to Exert Coercive Control and Commit I... Introduction The Impact of Federal and State Laws in Preventing and Responding to DV-Related Firearms Violence Second Amendment Limitations Federal Firearms Law: Prohibitors Domestic Violence Protection Order Prohibitor Misdemeanor Crime of Domestic Violence Prohibitor The Background Check System and Enforcement of Federal Firearms Laws Policy Recommendations Improving Background Checks Misdemeanor Crimes of Domestic Violence Domestic Violence Protective Orders The Importance of State Laws Strengthening Federal, State, Tribal, and local laws Strengthening Enforcement Other Recommendations Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Section XVI: Survivors, Economic, and Justice System Responses to Intimate Partner Violence 116 Barriers to Leaving an Abusive Relationship Introduction Factors Related to Leaving Marginalized Groups Children Present Extra Barriers Psychological Well-Being Worsens for Some After Separation High Status Adds Obstacles Traditional Religious and Family Norms Leaving as a Process Applications of Theory ``Helpers´´ Who Don´t Help Increasing Motivation to Leave Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 117 Economic Considerations of Intimate Partner Violence Introduction Economic Theories of Household Bargaining Formal Bargaining Models A Simple Bargaining Model of IPV Limitations to Formal Bargaining Models Economic Factors as Risk or Protective Factors for Violence The Association Between Economic Disadvantage and IPV Economic Empowerment as a Protective Prescription Employment Asset Ownership Economic Consequences of IPV Types of Costs: Direct, Indirect, and Intangible Methodologies for Estimating Costs The Macroeconomic Burden of IPV Costs over Time Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 118 Stigma and IPV Victimization Introduction What Is Stigma? Types of Stigma Related to IPV IPV Stigma from Professionals Factors That Can Contribute to Stigmatizing Responses Among Professionals Why Stigma from Professionals Is Harmful Law Enforcement Court System Medical Professionals Mental Health Professionals Domestic Violence Agencies Religious Organizations Employment and Education Added Stigma Measuring IPV Stigma Overcoming the Stigma of IPV Countering Stigma for Survivors Holding Perpetrators Accountable Creating Non-stigmatizing Systems Strategies for Ending the Stigma Surrounding IPV Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 119 System Response to Intimate Partner Violence: Coordinated Community Response Introduction Social and Historical Context The Duluth Domestic Violence Abuse Intervention Project (DAIP) Components of an Effective Coordinated Community Response Stakeholders in a Coordinated Community Response to Intimate Partner Violence Evaluating Coordinated Community Responses Effectiveness of Coordinated Community Responses Critiques, Gaps, and Unmet Needs Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 120 Advocacy and Intimate Partner Violence Introduction The Multifaceted Nature of Advocacy Intersectionality and Movement Analysis Types of Advocacy Individual-Level Advocacy Guiding Frameworks Policy Advocacy Key Elements of Policy Advocacy Using Evidence from Research and Practice to Shape Policy Advocacy Critical Analysis and the Lesson of Unintended Consequences The Power of Collective Action Prevention Advocacy Moving Upstream Dismantling Systems of Oppression Creating Healthy Individuals, Families, and Communities Trauma-Informed Prevention Prevention Strategies and Approaches Community Engagement and Collaboration Community-Level Prevention Strategies and Approaches Key Points Summary and Conclusion Prevention Program Examples Cross-References References 121 A Feminist Perspective on the Criminal Justice System Response to Domestic Violence Introduction Historical Backdrop and Feminist Response to Intimate Partner Violence Feminist Perspectives on IPV and the Criminal Justice System Response Criminal Justice System Response to Intimate Partner Violence Law Enforcement Mandatory/Preferred Arrest Mandatory/Preferred Arrest and Recidivism Unforeseen Consequences Final Thoughts on Law Enforcement/Mandatory Arrest Courts No-Drop Prosecution Domestic Violence Courts. Final Thoughts on Courts Corrections Domestic Violence Offender Treatment Standards and BIPs Colorado as a Case Study Global Positioning System (GPS) Programs Final Thoughts on Corrections/GPS Coordinated Community Response to Intimate Partner Violence Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References 122 Supporting Family Justice Centers Through Research and Evaluation Introduction Overview of the Family Justice Center Model Existing Research on the Effectiveness of Family Justice Centers Research and Evaluation Strategies for FJCs Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 123 Protection Orders: Shielding Intimate Partner Violence Victims from Harm Introduction Understanding Protection Orders Feminist Conceptualizations of Protection Orders The Protection Order Process Motivating Factors Applying for a Protection Order Full Faith and Credit Provisions Protection Order Eligibility Civil Versus Criminal Systems Administrative and Process-Oriented Challenges for Victims Statutory Provisions Protection Orders and Firearms Protection Order Research Outcome Studies Key Points Concluding Remarks Cross-References References 124 Intimate Partner Violence and Family Law: Focus on Separating and Divorcing Parents Introduction Family Mediation Custody Evaluations IPV and Custody Evaluation Concerns Alternative Dispute Resolution Processes with Limited IPV Research Non-ADR Family Law Interventions with Little IPV Research Case Example Summary and Conclusions Key Points Cross-References References 125 Intimate Partner Violence and Family Court Introduction IPV and Families Children Parents Informed Court Decisions Court Decisions Informed of Risk and Need for Protection Decisions Informed by Parenting Behavior Summary of IPV and Court Decisions Court Interventions and IPV Family Assessments Court-Ordered Mediation and Parent Coordination Summary of Court Services Courts and Clinical Interventions Individual Treatment in Families with IPV Clinical Services for Perpetrators Supervised Visitation Summary of Clinical Services and IPV Alienated Parents, Alienating Parents, and Reunification Evidence-Informed Reunification Summary of Alienation and Reunification Knowledge Gaps and Controversies Future Directions Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 126 Domestic Violence Fatality Review: The State of the Art Introduction Definition of Domestic Violence Fatality Review The Origins, Structure, and Governance of Review Teams Reviewable Cases Review Philosophy Review Process Team Membership Review Work as a Coordinated Community Response Fatality Review and the Law Outcomes Challenges Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References Section XVII: Survivors: Health, Mental Health, and Disaster Impacts and Responses to Intimate Partner Violence 127 Addressing Intimate Partner Violence Within the Healthcare System Introduction Health Effects of IPV Health Consequences of IPV Victimization Health Consequences for IPV Perpetrators Health Impacts for Second-Hand Exposure to IPV Proposed Mechanisms for the Link Between IPV and Negative Health Effects Increased Healthcare Needs and Utilization Among IPV Victims and Perpetrators Healthcare System as a Point of Contact IPV Screening Recommendations from National and International Organizations US Preventive Services Task Force American Medical Association Nursing Associations American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists American Academy of Pediatrics World Health Organization Best Practices for IPV Screening and Response Barriers to Screening and Implementing a System Wide Response to IPV Patients´ Responses to IPV Screening Helping HCPs Respond to a Patient´s Disclosure of IPV Need for Better Training in Healthcare Systems and Among HCPs Five Proposed Models of System Level Change Healthcare Can Change from Within Trauma- Informed Care Initiative Patient-Centered Medical Home Healthcare System Response to Dating Violence National Partnership to End Interpersonal Violence Plan System Change: Need for Champions, Change Models, and Effective Interventions Ethics, Privacy, Reporting Laws, and Documentation Related to IPV Assessment and Intervention Within Healthcare Settings Current Efforts to Move Beyond Screening Within the Healthcare System Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 128 Intimate Partner Violence and Sleep: An Overview of Sleep Disturbances and Interventions Introduction Part 1: Situating Sleep and IPV The Basic Physiology of Healthy Sleep The Effects of IPV on Sleep from a Neurobiological Perspective Neurobiology of Trauma Common Sleep Disturbances Associated with IPV Insomnia Nightmares Other Sleep Disturbances Associated with Trauma The Role of Sleep in Moderating or Mediating the Psychopathological Manifestations of IPV Part 2: Non-Pharmacological Treatment for Sleep Disturbances Associated with IPV Insomnia Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Nightmares Traditional Imagery Rehearsal Therapy (IRT) for Nightmares Psychodynamically Grounded IRT Treatment of Other Sleep Disorders Associated with IPV Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 129 The US Mental Health Care System´s Response to Intimate Partner Violence: A Call to Action Introduction Mental Health Care System´s Current Response to IPV Summary of the Mental Health Care System´s Current Response to IPV Mental Health Care System Barriers and Controversies about the Role of Mental Health Care Providers in the Prevention and Trea... A Call to Action Importance of Conducting Prevention Activities with a Trauma-Informed Approach Classification of Prevention Initiatives and Terminology Overview of Universal Primary Prevention of IPV The Role of Mental Health Care Providers in Universal Primary Prevention of IPV Targeted Secondary Prevention of IPV The Role of Mental Health Care Providers in Targeted Secondary Prevention of IPV Assessment and Management of Risk for Future IPV Exposure Summary of Mental Health Care System´s Role in Secondary Prevention Tertiary Prevention of IPV The Role of Mental Health Care Providers in Tertiary Prevention of IPV Cultural Considerations Model to Facilitate Integrating IPV Treatment into the Mental Health Care System Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 130 Mental Health Treatment in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence Introduction: Intimate Partner Violence, Trauma, and Mental Health Prevalence of IPV and Other Lifetime Trauma Among People Accessing Mental Health Services IPV and Lifetime Trauma IPV and Psychiatric Disability Mental Health Impact of IPV Depression and IPV Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Complex Trauma, and IPV IPV and Suicide Mental Health Treatment in the Context of IPV Preparing to Address IPV Incorporating an Accessible, Culturally Responsive, IPV/Trauma-Informed Approach Incorporating a DV-Advocacy Approach in Clinical Services Attending to Privacy and Confidentiality Attending to Physical and Emotional Safety Intake and Assessment Routine Inquiry and Assessment Incorporating Awareness of IPV and Mental Health Coercion into Assessments Previous Trauma History Coping and Survival Strategies Incorporating IPV-Specific Interventions into Mental Health Practice Offering Information Addressing Mental Health Coercion Trauma Treatment in the Context of IPV Parenting Support and Child Well-Being Collaborating with the DV Field Safety Planning and Crisis Response Safety Planning Psychiatric Advance Directives Suicide Risk Homicidality Best Practices for Clinical Documentation Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 131 Treatment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence Treatment of PTSD in Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence Introduction IPV and PTSD in Diverse Women Reasons to Address PTSD in IPV Survivors Services and Treatment Standard Services for IPV Survivors IPV Treatment Approaches Specific Treatments for IPV-Related PTSD HOPE for Residents of Domestic Violence Shelters Structure of HOPE HOPE Modules The Empowerment Toolbox HOPE: A Case Example Research on HOPE Recommendations Regarding HOPE Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 132 Male Victims of Female-Perpetrated Intimate Partner Violence: History, Controversy, and the Current State of Research Introduction History and Controversy of the Research on IPV by Women Against Men Current Estimates of IPV by Women Towards Men in the United States Methods for Studying IPV by Women Against Men Intimate Partner Violence Experiences Among Samples of Male Victims Why Do They Stay? Mental and Physical Health of Male IPV Victims Men´s Experiences Seeking Help for IPV Victimization Child Witnesses of Female-on-Male IPV Policy and Practice Implications Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 133 Feminist Perspectives on Disaster, Pandemics, and Intimate Partner Violence Introduction Sexual Minorities African American Women Indigenous Women Disaster Related Violence and the Correlation with Intimate Partner Violence COVID-19 Pandemic and the Rise in Intimate Partner Abuse Impacts on Survivors of Intimate Partner Abuse Additional Factors Moving Forward Unmet Needs for Survivors of Disaster Changing Culture Through Strategic Planning to Protect Women in Disaster Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Section XVIII: Intimate Partner Violence: Special Populations 134 Intimate Partner Violence: Military Personnel and Veterans Introduction Scope of the Problem Similarities and Differences Combat Experience and IPV Intersection of IPV with Combat-Related Co-Occurring Conditions Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Traumatic Brain Injury Substance Use Disorder (SUD) Depression Suicide Screening and Assessment Screening Screening for Military Service and War/Conflict Zone Deployments Screening for IPV Perpetration Screening for Co-occurring Conditions Screening for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Screening for Traumatic Brain Injury Screening for Substance Use Disorder Screening for Depression Assessment Assessing Risk and Danger The Case of Maria: More to the Story IPV Treatment and Intervention Implications for Practice: Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 135 Intimate Partner Violence in College Settings Intimate Partner Violence in College Settings IPV in College: Prevalence and Consequences for Physiological, Psychological, and Academic Well-Being Potential College-Specific Factors Affecting IPV Campus-Specific Predictors of IPV Individual-Level Predictors of IPV in College Cyber and Technological IPV in College Gender Symmetry and Mutual Aggression in IPV in College Same-Sex IPV Among College Students Responses by the American College Health Association (ACHA) and Others Responses to IPV in College: Title IX Overview and History of Title IX Title IX and IPV on College Campuses Role of Administrators and Staff Role of Faculty Impact of Title IX on Students Challenges to Title IX Implementation in College Settings Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References 136 Human Trafficking and Intimate Partner Violence Introduction Case Study Subject Data Witnessing of IPV During Childhood Adult Experience of IPV Coerced into Selling Sex Batterer-Trafficker Tactics Enmeshment in Human Trafficking Criminal Enterprise, Arrest, and Conviction Trauma-Related Symptoms and Relational Dysfunction Case Summary Intimate Partner Violence Exposure During Childhood and Human Trafficking IPV in Childhood and Later Interpersonal Victimization IPV in Childhood and Later Perpetration of Interpersonal Violence Shared Dynamics of Intimate Partner Violence and Human Trafficking Shared Consequences of IPV and Human Trafficking Batterers and Traffickers Treatment of Victims of Intimate Partner Violence and Human Trafficking Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 137 Poly-victimization: The Co-occurrence of Intimate Partner Violence with Other Forms of Aggression Introduction Forms of Abuse Child Physical Abuse Child Sexual Abuse Child Psychological Abuse Child Neglect Witnessing Violence Intimate Partner Violence and Dating Violence Adult Sexual Assault What Is Poly-Victimization? Demographic Characteristics of Poly-Victims Avenues to Victimization Outcomes of Poly-Victimization Implications Key Points Summary and Conclusions References Section XIX: Perpetrators and Interventions for Intimate Partner Violence 138 Relationship Violence Perpetrator Intervention Programs: History and Models Background History The Initiation of Batterer Programs Early Controversies Program Growth and Proliferation Program and Practice Standardization Re-evaluation of Program Models and Expanded Approaches Models Pro-feminist/Consciousness-Raising Models Conceptual and Philosophical Assumptions Intervention Strategies Dissemination and Impact Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions Conceptual and Philosophical Assumptions Intervention Strategies Dissemination and Impact Next-Generation CBT Approaches Philosophy and Approach ACT DBT Key Intervention Techniques Dissemination and Impact Other Approaches, Adaptations, and Adjunctive Interventions Motivational Enhancement Therapy Trauma-Informed CBT Culturally Focused Interventions Risk-Responsive and Forensic Intervention Models Restorative Justice Approaches Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 139 The Efficacy of Psychosocial Interventions for Partner Violent Individuals Introduction Background Are RVIP Programs Effective in Reducing IPV? Conclusions from Meta-analyses of RVIP Efficacy Which RVIP Approaches Are Most Effective? What Are the Key Ingredients of Effective RVIP Interventions? Enhance Motivation to Change Facilitate Constructive Peer Influence Promote Emotion Regulation Improve Relationship and Communication Skills Forensic Rehabilitation Models Moving Forward to Promote Research-Based Practice Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 140 Alternative to Violence, a Violence-Focused Psychotherapy for Men Using Violence Against Their Female Partner Introduction The Alternative to Violence (ATV) Model Intake Procedure and Assessment A Violence-Specific Psychotherapeutic Approach Addressing Client´s Use of Violence Addressing Client´s Sense of Responsibility Addressing Psychological Connections, Client´s Experiences Related to Violent Acts Addressing Consequences of Violence Nonviolence Groups for Men Knowledge Processing Training Including the Partner in IPV Therapy The Partner Information Session Including the Children Living in Families with Intimate Partner Violence Addressing the Child´s Perspective in the Therapy Room Breaking the Silence Circle of Security Parenting, COS-P Incorporating Interactional Models of Father and Child Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 141 Couples Counseling to End Intimate Partner Violence Couples Counseling to End Intimate Partner Violence Prevalence and Risk Markers for Situational Couple Violence History of Couples Counseling for IPV and the Controversy Surrounding It Objection 1: Conjoint Treatment Might Lead to Escalation of Violence Objection 2: Use of a Systemic Framework Might Lead to Victim Blaming Objection 3: Lack of a Careful Screening Process Might Lead to Inappropriate Clients Participating in Conjoint Treatment Objection 4: Conjoint Treatment Might Provide a Format that Would Support Perpetrator Control and Abuse (As It May Encourage C... Objection 5: Conjoint Treatment May Not Be Trauma Informed and May Fail to Consider the Historical and Cultural Contexts that ... Treatment Approaches Including Both Partners Designed to Treat Court or Protective Service-Mandated Clients Conjoint Treatment Approaches Designed for Carefully Screened Voluntary Clients Domestic Violence-Focused Couples Treatment (DVFCT) Screening Additional Safety Measures The First 6 Weeks Final 12 Weeks of the Program Programs Using Innovative Formats or Newer Approaches Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 142 Female Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence Introduction History of the Research and Controversy Development of the Literature Related Fields of Study Summary Recommendations for Future Directions Key Points Cross-References References Additional Resources Section XX: Adult Sexual Harassment and Assault: Victimization and Perpetration 143 Rape Persists Introduction Sexual Assault Perpetration Consequences of Victimization Sexual Assault and Marginalized Identities Intervention and Prevention Setting- and System-Specific Sexual Assault Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 144 Sexual Assault Perpetration Introduction Socio-ecological Model Individual-Level Perspective on Sexual Violence Relationship-Level Perspective on Sexual Violence Community Norms and Societal Influences Elaboration of Socio-ecological Model Individual Factors at the Situational Level Relational Factors at the Situational Level Community Factors at the Situational Level Societal Factors at the Situational Level Perpetration Intervention Future Directions Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 145 A Conceptual Overview of Drugging: It´s Not What You Think Introduction Prevalence of Drugging Victimization Prevalence of Drugging and Sexual Assault Drugging Perpetration Types of Drugging Types of Drugs Theoretical Frameworks for Drugging Drugging Victims: Who Are They? Drugging Victims´ Experiences Is Drugging Real? Recommendations for Intervention and Prevention Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 146 Nature and Scope of Technology-Facilitated or Related Sexual Violence: Focus on Pornography The Rise and Evolution of Pornography Theoretical Perspectives Research on Pornography Laboratory Studies Survey Studies Official Statistics Limitations of Research Agency in Pornography Pornography and Violence against Women Sexting and Revenge Pornography Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 147 Underground Anti-woman and Incel Movements and Their Connections to Sexual Assault Introduction The Development of the Manosphere: A Response to Women´s Empowerment The Manosphere: Men´s Rights Activists, Pick-up Artists, and MGTOW Incels in the Manosphere Terrorism Attracts Attention Discussion, Analysis, and Outlook Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 148 The Nature and Scope of Sexual Assault Victimization of Adults Introduction Extent of Adult Sexual Victimization Sexual Victimization of Adult Men Sexual Victimization of Sexual Minorities Sexual Victimization of College Students Recurring Sexual Victimization Risk Factors for Sexual Assault and Harassment Theoretical Perspectives Individual, Behavioral, and Social Risk Factors Prevention of Sexual Victimization Alcohol and Drug Use Programs Bystander Intervention Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 149 Health and Mental Health Consequences from Sexual Trauma Victimizations Sexual Assault as a Unique Crime Neurobiological Effects Hormonal Response to Trauma Memory Resiliency Physical Health Outcomes Physical Injury Sexually Transmitted Infections Pregnancy General Health Concerns Impaired Sleep Impaired Appetite and Gastrointestinal Problems Sexual Dysfunction Mental Health Outcomes Anxiety Depression Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Behavioral Outcomes Borderline Personality Disorder Dissociation Emotional Reactions Suicidal Ideation Psychosocial Outcomes Impact of Triggers Impact on Relationships Financial Implications Impact of Secrecy and Disclosure High-Risk Groups and Intersectionality Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 150 Disclosing Sexual Assault: Understanding the Culture of Nondisclosure Introduction Definitions and Prevalence of Sexual Assault Consequences of Sexual Assault Disclosing Sexual Assault Disclosing Barriers Shifting the Culture Toward Disclosure Research Practice Policy Programming Key Points Summary and Conclusions References 151 False Reporting of Sexual Victimization: Prevalence, Definitions, and Public Perceptions Introduction - False Reporting of Sexual Violence: Prevalence, Definitions, and Public Perceptions Defining a False Report, an Unconfirmed Report, Unsubstantiated Report, and Baseless Report Prevalence Rates of False Reports Factors that Contribute to the Over-estimation of False Reports by Law Enforcement and the Public How False Reports Can Be Manufactured by Lack of Trauma-Informed Investigation Consequences of Overestimating the Prevalence of False Allegations Factors Common in Reports of Sexual Victimization That Are Verified as False How Can Law Enforcement Respond to False Reporting How to Interact with Survivors to Reduce Vulnerability to Claims of False Reporting Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 152 Sexual Harassment Communication Across the Context and the Lifespan: An Interdisciplinary Perspective Introduction Interdisciplinary Research on Sexual Harassment Across the Lifespan Conceptual Definitions of Sexual Harassment Measuring Sexual Harassment Antecedents and Consequences Communication Perspective on Sexual Harassment Discursive Approach Narratives and Sexual Harassment Power, Difference, and Discourse New Areas of Research on Sexual Harassment Across the Lifespan Online Sexual Harassment Communicative Responses to Sexual Harassment Future Areas of Research on Sexual Harassment Across the Lifespan Macro-level Research Opportunities Meso-level Policies, #MeToo, and Sexual Harassment on Social Media Micro-level Issues Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 153 The Cultural Context of Sexual Assault and Its Consequences Among Ethnic Minority Women Introduction African American Women Prevalence Mental Health Effects Sociocultural Factors Culturally Specific Suggestions for Research/Clinical Engagement Latina American Women Prevalence Mental Health Effects Sociocultural Factors Culturally Specific Suggestions for Research/Clinical Engagement Asian American and Pacific Islander Women Prevalence Mental Health Effects Sociocultural Factors Culturally Specific Suggestions for Research/Clinical Engagement American Indian/Alaska Native Women Prevalence Mental Health Effects Sociocultural Context Culturally Specific Suggestions for Research/Clinical Engagement Arab and Muslim American Women Prevalence Culturally Specific Suggestions for Research/Clinical Engagement Implications for Future Research, Practice, and Policy Future Research Directions Theoretical Models Practice Policy Key Points Concluding Thoughts Cross-References References 154 Unsafe Sanctuary: Immigrants of Color Victims of Sexual Abuse Introduction Pre-migration: La Caldera del Diablo (The Devil´s Cauldron) Let Us Consider Socorro´s Reason for Leaving Guatemala Socorro´s Pre-migration Peri-migration: In-Transit Journey Socorro´s Migration Journey Arrival: In the Belly of a Beast Socorro´s Arrival: Finding Esperanza Post-migration: Unsafe Sanctuary Socorro´s Post-migration: Re-traumatization Culturally Relevant Trauma-Informed Psychotherapy Socorro´s Recovery Conclusion: Adversity, Resilience, and Post-traumatic Growth Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 155 Sexual Abuse Among Individuals with Disabilities Case Risk Factors Gender Race/Ethnicity Age Income and Education Other Risk Factors Case Application Protective Factors Case Application Consequences Case Application Assessment Assessment of Disability Barriers Abuse Screening Tool Behavioral Observations Family Assessment Psychological Assessment Case Application Interventions Crisis Situations Treatment for Children Treatment for Adults Unique Treatments Cultural Considerations Case Application Prevention Women with Intellectual Disabilities Children with Intellectual Disabilities Self-defense Training Healthcare Providers Societal Changes Case Application Ethical Challenges Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 156 Sexual Violence among Sexual and Gender Minorities Introduction Prevalence of Sexual Violence Victimization Within Sexual and Gender Minorities National Prevalence Data Estimates of Sexual Violence Victimization among Trans and Nonbinary Populations Unique Features and Contexts of Sexual Violence Perpetration Against and Among SGMs Violence Against Sexual and Gender Minorities Violence Among Sexual Minorities Early Disparities and the Connections to Other Forms of Violence Outcomes of Sexual Violence Victimization Among Sexual and Gender Minorities Mental Health Outcomes Physical Health Outcomes Suicide Response and Prevention for Sexual Violence Among Sexual and Gender Minorities Minority Stress Theory Barriers to Treatment Protective Factors and Opportunities for Intervention Policy Change Training and Professional Development Legal Identification Community Connectedness Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 157 Identifying, Attending, and Protecting US Sex Trafficked Adults and Minors Introduction Overview of Human Trafficking in the United States Trafficker Characteristics and Means Vulnerabilities Sex Buyers and Demand Trafficking Biases and Myths Lack of Attention on Adult Victims of Trafficking Stigmatizing Terminology and Bias Towards Vulnerable Adults Overlaps Between Trafficked Minors and Adults Public Perceptions About Sex Trafficking Media Coverage of Human Trafficking Consequences of Trafficking and Intervention Recommendations Health Consequences Intergenerational Transmission Psychological and Relational Supports Caring for Providers and Desirable Approaches Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 158 Men Stopping Violence´s Definition of Male Sexual Violence Against Women: Implications for Prevention and Intervention Current Definitions of Sexual Violence Legal Public Health Campus/School Policies Community-Based/Social Justice Men Stopping Violence: A Different Approach MSV´s Analysis of Male Violence Against Women Why an MSV Definition? MSV´s Definition Unpacking ``Male Sexual Entitlement´´ Unpacking ``Tactics to Impose His Will´´ The Evolution of MSV´s Definition How and Where the Definition Is Used A Case Study Strengths and Limitations of MSV´s Definition Implications for Intervention and Prevention Efforts Creating and Facilitating Spaces That Enhance Learning for Men Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 159 Reforming Comprehensive Sexuality Education to Prevent Sexual Assault Comprehensive Sexuality Education Defining Characteristics Does CSE Work? Implementation Limitations and Potential of Comprehensive Sexuality Education Sexual Assault Prevention Limitations and Potential of Sexual Violence Prevention Interventions Integrating Comprehensive Sexuality Education and Sexual Assault Prevention Needed Reforms Role of Families in Sexuality Education Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 160 New Environmental Approaches to Preventing Sexual Assault: Building on a History of Individual-Level Interventions Introduction Theoretical Models Explaining Sexual Assault Perpetration Risk Factors for Sexual Assault Perpetration: How Do Community/Environmental Factors Fit in? Prior Evaluation of Sexual Assault Prevention Initiatives Individual-Level Sexual Assault Prevention Community-Level Sexual Assault Prevention Opportunities for Social-Ecological Interventions to Prevent Sexual Assault Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 161 Sexual Harassment Training: Why It (Currently) Doesn´t Work and What Can Be Done Introduction Why (Current) Training Isn´t Working Training Focused on Legal/Compliance Expectation of Immediate Results Negative Pretraining Attitudes (Ineffective) Bystander Training No Effectiveness Measurement What We Really Need: Culture/Climate Change Supporting Victims and Holding Perpetrators Accountable Diffusing Organizational Hierarchy Consistently Demonstrated Managerial Support Readiness for Change Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 162 Interventions in the Aftermath of Sexual Violence: Justice, Advocacy, and Treatment Introduction: The Impact of Sexual Violence on Individuals and Communities A Note on Trauma-Informed and Survivor-Centered Approaches Criminal Justice Response and Interventions in the Immediate Aftermath of Sexual Violence Advocacy Response and Interventions: Individual-Level and Community-Level Interventions in the Aftermath of SV Individual-Level Crisis Interventions Assessment of Survivor Needs Establishment of Trust and Addressing Survivor Emotional Responses Plan for Accessing Resources and Overcoming Barriers Community-Level Coordinated Responses Restorative Justice as the Bridge Between Criminal Justice and Advocacy Response in the Aftermath of SV After the Initial Response to SV: Treatment, Interventions, and Considerations Safety Planning Proximal Treatment The Role of Intersectionality in SV Response and Intervention Sexual Violence in Correctional Facilities Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 163 Treatment Interventions for Perpetrators of Sexual Violence Introduction History of Treatment for Perpetrators of Sexual Violence Treatment Rationales Treatment Effectiveness General Treatment Challenges Mandated Treatment Lack of Confidentiality Denial and Minimization Dual Roles Accessibility to Treatment and Other Resources Common Factors Across Treatment Modalities Assessment that Includes Multiple Data Sources Collaboration with Other Professionals and Agencies Common Core Treatment Targets Treatment Modalities and Frameworks Motivational Interviewing Techniques (MI) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Relapse Prevention Pharmacological The Risk-Needs-Responsivity Model The Good Lives Model Integrated Treatment Approaches Safe Offender Strategies Inpatient Civil Commitment Programs Treatment Considerations for Special Populations and Contexts Child and Juvenile Offenders College Sexual Violence Military Female Offenders LGBTQ Offenders Internet Offenders Recommendations for Providers Key Points Summary and Conclusions References 164 Military Sexual Trauma Introduction Military Culture and MST Protective Factors and Coping Strategies Among Women MST Survivors Behavioral Mental and Physical Health Outcomes Functional Outcomes Among Women MST Survivors Servicemen and MST Sexual Orientation and Gender Minorities Connections Between MST and Other Forms of Violence and Abuse Treatment of MST Military Policies and Programs Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References 165 Sexual Violence and Religious Institutions: With a Special Focus on the Catholic Church Introduction Defining ``Sexual Violence´´ and ``Religious Institutions´´ Sexual Violence Religious Institutions Sexual Violence in Jewish Institutions Sexual Violence in Islamic Institutions Sexual Violence in Eastern Religious Institutions Sexual Violence in Other Christian Institutions Myths About Sexual Abuse in Religious Institutions Myth 1: Men Who Have Been Sexually Abused Will Abuse Others Myth 2: Men Who Abuse Are Gay Myth 3: Only Boys Are Abused by Church Clergy Myth 4: Abusers Only Target Victims from Broken Homes Myth 5: All Priests Are Abusers Myth 6: All Priests Who Abuse Are Pedophiles Myth 7: Celibacy Is Responsible for Abuse Collecting and Reporting Data on Sexual Violence in Religious Institutions Major Investigations Impact of Sexual Abuse Physical Consequences Psychological Consequences Biological Consequences Social Consequences Religious and Spiritual Consequences Cover-Up Dynamic A Culture of Silence Relocation as Atonement Divine Justice Versus Procedural Justice A Hierarchy of Issues Clericalism Attempts at Church Reform Pastoral Care and Counseling for Sexual Trauma Survivors Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 166 Sexual Violence in the Context of Higher Education: The Current State of Research and Policy Introduction The Scope of the Problem of Sexual Violence Victimization on College Campuses Methodological Challenges and Controversies Perpetration of Sexual Violence in the Campus Context Individual-Level Correlates of Perpetration Peer-Level Correlates of Perpetration Community-Level Correlates of Perpetration Institutional Responses to Campus Sexual Violence Federal Policies and Regulations Regarding Campus Sexual Violence How Institutions Respond Consequences of Inadequate Responses: Institutional Betrayal Prevention of Sexual Violence on College Campuses Effectiveness of Current Prevention Programming Promising Prevention Strategies Key Points Summary and Conclusions Future Directions Cross-References References 167 Bars as a Drinking Context for Sexual Aggression Introduction Characteristics of Bars That Promote Sexual Aggression Social and Psychological Factors Physical Characteristics of Bars Alcohol Intake of Patrons Men´s Attitudes and Beliefs Associated with Sexual Aggression in Bars Perceived Gender Roles and Norms Peer Approval and Peer Dynamics Responsibility of Women/Victim Blaming Miscues and Innocent Overtures The Role of Alcohol Awareness of Impact on Target Women´s Attitudes and Experiences of Sexual Aggression in Bars Women´s Reasons for Drinking in Bars Aggression Women Experience in Bars Women´s Feelings About and Responses to Sexual Aggression in Bars Women´s Insight into Causes of Aggression in Bars Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 168 Sexual Violence in Athletic Organizations Introduction Key Terms Sexual Violence Perpetration by Athletes Theoretical Considerations Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 169 Wartime Sexual Violence: A Historical Review of the Law, Theory, and Prevention of Sexual Violence in Conflict Introduction Defining Terms and Scope of Focus Brief History of Sexual Violence in Conflict Theorizing Wartime Rape Sexual Violence in Conflict and International Law Sexual Violence in Conflict Prevention Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 170 Improving the Police Response to Rape Victims: Persistent Challenges and New Directions Introduction Reluctance to Report Police Preparedness to Conduct Victim Interviews Police Culture, Folk Knowledge, and Academic Findings Gender Influences on Policing Rape Special Populations of Rape Victims Victims with Disabilities College Students Victims with Criminal Histories Cultural Minority Groups/Immigrants and Refugees Victims of Domestic Violence Sex Trafficking Victims Advantages of Rape Victim Advocates and Sexual Assault Response Teams Current Initiatives and Future Directions Training Additional Methods of Reporting Rape Policies Related to Gender and Sexuality Videotaped Interviews Clear Protocols for Intervention/Documentation Areas for Future Research Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 171 Title IX and Restorative Justice as Informal Resolution for Sexual Misconduct Introduction Campus Adjudication and the Criminal Justice System: Differences and Similarities Restorative Justice Differentiating RJ and Mediation Restorative Justice and Sexual Harm Title IX and Campus Adjudication of Sexual Misconduct Title IX and Informal Resolution Restorative Justice in Higher Education Restorative Justice as Informal Resolution for Sexual Misconduct RJ Conferencing: A Fully Restorative Informal Resolution Option Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Section XXI: Adult Survivors of Childhood Abuse and Victimization 172 Progress in Understanding Victim-Survivors of Interpersonal Violence: Introduction to the Section Introduction The Topics and Chapters Included in This Part Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 173 The Contemporary Study of Adult Survivors of Interpersonal Violence and the Development of Mental Health Treatment Introduction Developments in the Psychotherapy for Adult Survivors of Interpersonal Violence Early History Development of New Schools Contemporary Developments The Development of Trauma-Specific Treatments Developing Guidelines Theory, Practice, and Research in Treatment of Adults with a History of IPV Overview of Outcomes Interrelationships Among Theory, Practice, and Research Types of Evidence That Inform Treatment and Decision-Making Evolution of Evidence Models The Three Es Clinical Decision-Making Based on Evidence Treatment Guidelines Developed by Professional Associations An Analysis of Clinical Practice Guidelines Other Evidence for Clinical Decision-Making Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 174 Lifespan and Intergenerational Promotive and Protective Factors Against the Transmission of Interpersonal Violence in Dive... Introduction Rates of Childhood Maltreatment and Exposure to IPV Definitions of Resilience Evidence for Lifespan and Intergenerational Transmission of Interpersonal Violence Theoretical Perspectives Childhood Exposure to Interpersonal Violence and Adulthood IPV Childhood Exposure to Interpersonal Violence and Maltreatment of Offspring Section Summary Buffering Against the Transmission of Interpersonal Violence Buffering Against the Transmission of Maltreatment Individual Factors Relational Factors Communal Factors Buffering Against the Transmission of IPV Individual Factors Relational Factors Communal Factors Section Summary Measurement of Promotive and Protective Factors Novel Instruments The Perinatal Period Culturally Sensitive Methods Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 175 Adult Sequelae of Childhood Interpersonal Violence Introduction The CPTSD Diagnosis Development of the CPTSD Diagnosis Disturbances of Self-Organization Commonly Observed Additional Symptoms Critiques of the CPTSD Diagnosis CPTSD Differential Diagnosis The Neurobiology of CPTSD The Peripheral Nervous System The Central Nervous System The Cerebellum Using Neuroscience in Treatment Treatment Applications CPTSD in the Clinic: Case Study 1 Discussion of Case Study 1 Interventions Case 1 Case Study 2 Discussion of Case 2 Interventions Case 2 Summary and Conclusion Key Points Cross-References References 176 Impact of Childhood Maltreatment and Polyvictimization on Adult Revictimization Introduction Scope and Significance of Childhood Maltreatment and Polyvictimization The Relation of Childhood Maltreatment and Polyvictimization to the Occurrence of Adult Revictimization Pathways from Child Maltreatment to Adult Revictimization Impact of Childhood Maltreatment and Polyvictimization on Neurobiological Development Impact of Child Maltreatment and Polyvictimization on Psychosocial Development Impact of Child Maltreatment and Polyvictimization on the Acquisition and Use of Personal and Interpersonal Coping Resources Childhood Maltreatment and Polyvictimization as Predictors of Psychological and Physical Health in Adulthood Interventions Key Points Summary and Conclusion References 177 Impact of Interpersonal, Family, Cultural, and Institutional Betrayal on Adult Survivors of Abuse Introduction Betrayal Trauma Theory Prevalence Rates and Risk Factors for High-Betrayal Trauma Neurobiological and Developmental Impacts of Betrayal Trauma Betrayal Trauma Theory Applied to Families, Institutions, and Minority Cultural Groups Family Betrayal Institutional Betrayal Cultural Betrayal Trauma Theory Treatments Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) Prolonged Exposure (PE) Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Therapy (EMDR) Skills Training for Affective and Interpersonal Regulation (STAIR) Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) Complicated Grief Therapy (CTG) Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) Relational Cultural Therapy (RCT) Summary and Conclusion Key Points References 178 The Tapestry of Identity: Understanding Intersectionality Within Victimization Experiences, Consequences, and Treatment of... Introduction to Intersectionality Research: Origin and Definition Importance of Intersectionality in Victimization Research Intersectional Approaches in Research Single Demographic Research and the Consequences of Abuse: How to Inform Future Intersectional Analysis Intersectionality and the Experience and Efficacy of Treatment Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References 179 Clinical Perspectives About Male Sexual Victimization: The Cultural and Historical Context of Gender Introduction and Overview Recommendations to Consider Shifting the Paradigm The Feminization of Sexual Victimization The Impact of Isolation and ``Invisible Visibility´´ Identity Dysphoria Dissociation Untangling the Knot of Offender Mythologies Prevalence and the Law Key Points Summary and Conclusion: Looking Toward the Future Cross-References References 180 Assessment and Clinical Decision-Making with Adult Survivors of Interpersonal Violence Introduction Interpersonal Violence and Collective Violence Polyvictimization, Multiple Maltreatment, and Cumulative Traumas Complex Trauma Prevalence of Interpersonal Violence The Impact of Interpersonal Violence Measuring the Cumulative Effects of Interpersonal Violence Assessing Interpersonal Violence General Tips for Screening for IV Know the Signs of Trauma Use Screening Measures Assess Safety Conducting a Comprehensive Assessment of IV and Its Effects Setting the Frame Tools for the Assessment of Interpersonal Violence Diagnostic and Symptom Measures Self-Report Assessments of IV Exposure The Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5; Weathers et al. 2013b) Stressful Life Events Screening Questionnaire (SLESQ; Goodman et al. 1998) Trauma History Questionnaire (THQ; Hooper et al. 2011) Structured Trauma-Related Experiences and Symptoms Screener for Adults (STRESS-A; Grasso et al. 2019) Self-Report Assessments of Specific Types of IV Exposure Adverse Childhood Experiences Questionnaire (ACE; Felitti et al. 1998) Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF; Bernstein et al. 2003) Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2; Straus et al. 1996) Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scales (CTSPC; Straus et al. 1996) Vulnerability to Abuse Screening Scale (VASS; Schofield and Mishra 2003) Interview-Based Assessments of IV Exposure Family Socialization Interview (FSI-R; O´Dor et al. 2017) Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5; Weathers et al. 2013a) Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References Appendix 1 Self-Report Measures of Psychiatric Symptoms and Resilience Appendix 2 Self-Report and Interview-Based Measures for the Assessment of IV Exposure and Impact References 181 Dissociation, Dissociative Disorder, and Their Treatment Introduction The Key Definitions and Models of Dissociation Dissociative Symptoms The Dissociative Disorders Dissociative Amnesia (DA) Depersonalization or Derealization Disorder (DDD) Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) Dissociative Subtype of PTSD Assessment of Dissociation Research on the Development of Dissociative Symptoms and Dissociative Disorder The Biology of Dissociation Treatment of Dissociation Nonspecific Therapies for Dissociative Symptoms Specific Therapies for Dissociative Disorders Key Points Conclusion and Summary References 182 The Health Effects of Childhood Abuse and Adversity: Mechanisms, Consequences, and Trauma-Informed Care Introduction Background Why ACEs Make People Sick Five Pathways that Impact Health in Trauma Survivors Physiological Pathways. Behavioral Pathways Cognitive Pathways Social Pathways Emotional Pathways Diseases Associated with Adverse Childhood Experiences Cardiovascular Disease Diabetes/Metabolic Syndrome Obesity/High BMI Sleep Problems Pulmonary Conditions Somatic Complaints and Chronic Pain Syndromes Autoimmune Disease Patterns of Health Care Use Health Care Providers´ Response Abuse Survivors Patient Response to Screening Implications for Policy SAMHSA´s Model for Trauma-Informed Care SAMSHA´s Principles of Trauma-Informed Care Key Points Conclusions Cross-References References 183 Attachment Styles and Vicarious Trauma Introduction Attachment Styles Evidence-Based Relational Variables Contributing to Effective Treatment How Attachment Styles and Reactions to Indirect Trauma Exposure Impact the Therapeutic Process Therapist Attachment Styles and Responses to Vicarious Trauma Exposure Self-Care and Intervention Implications Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Section XXII: Older Adult and Elder Abuse: Victimization and Perpetration 184 Introduction: Abuse in Later Life Introduction Intimate Partner Violence in Later Life Sexual Victimization of the Elderly: An Examination of the Emergent Problem Caregiving and Elder Abuse: A Complex Relationship Recognizing the Trauma Experienced by Community-Dwelling Older Victims of Financial Abuse Perpetrated by Trusted Others Neglect and Self-Neglect of Older Adults Systems Responses to Older Adults and Elder Abuse Polyvictimization and Elder Abuse Intersectionality of Elder Abuse and Mental Health Issues: Needs and Interventions for Victims Perpetrators of Elder Abuse Elder Abuse, Impaired Adult Child, and Maternal Identity Elder Abuse in Asia Key Points Summary and Conclusion Elder Abuse in the Context of Family Violence: A Federal Legislative History Cross-References References 185 Intimate Partner Violence in Later Life Introduction Definitions What Is Known about Late-Life IPV Prevalence Gender and Prior History of Trauma Health Status, Dependence, and Social Isolation Health Consequences of IPV for Older Adults Economic Abuse as a Subset of Late-Life IPV Aging Unequally and Late-Life IPV Risk Helpseeking: Responses to Survivors in Later Life Social Norms that Discourage Older Survivors from Seeking Help Practical Barriers to Help-Seeking for Older Survivors Promising Practices for Victim Advocacy for Older IPV Survivors Categories of Intimate Partner Relationships in Later Life Principles for Victim-Defined Advocacy Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 186 Sexual Victimization of the Elderly: An Examination of the Emergent Problem Introduction/Historical Context Definitional and Methodological Deficits Prevalence and Incidence Victim and Offender Profiles Victims Offenders Consequences Strategies to Address Intervention and Prevention Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 187 Recognizing the Trauma Experienced by Community-Dwelling Older Victims of Financial Abuse Perpetrated by Trusted Others Introduction: Historical Overview of Financial Exploitation The Definition and Prevalence of Financial Exploitation Conceptual Models Consequences of Financial Abuse Financial Abuse, Trauma, and PTSD Interpersonal Dynamics of Financial Abuse Hybrid Financial Abuse: One Form of Polyvictimization Financial Abuse Risk Factors in an Ecological Context Intersectionality and Financial Abuse Perceptions of Financial Abuse by Professionals and Older Adults Detection (Screening) and Reporting Financial Abuse Society´s Response: Civil Society´s Response: Criminal Society´s Response: Interventions and Prevention Future Research Key Points Conclusions Cross-References References 188 Neglect and Self-Neglect of Older Adults Introduction Case Examples Neglect by Others Definitions and Epidemiology Epidemiology of Neglect Phenotype and Detection Prevention and Intervention Neglect of Self Overview Definitions & Epidemiology Prevalence Morbidity and Mortality Phenotype and Detection Etiology of Self-Neglect Biological and Psychological Factors Cognition, Memory, and Executive Function Impaired Activities of Daily Living Inadequate Support Services Intentional or Unintentional Neglect Etiologic Model Summary Prevention and Intervention Detection and Reporting Intervention Impact of Abandonment and Neglect Interconnections with Other Types of Violence Lack of Decision-Making Capacity Is the Unifying Theme of Elder Mistreatment Neglect Versus Self-Neglect Social Justice Implications Human Suffering Training for Health Care Providers Community Responses Policy and Advocacy Screening Multidisciplinary Team Interventions Training Elder Mistreatment Experts Where the Field Is Going Forensic Centers: When Neglect Is Criminal Research Around Dementia Telehealth Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 189 Polyvictimization and Elder Abuse Introduction Section I: Background A Definition of Polyvictimization in Later Life Theoretical Constructs and Explanatory Frameworks The Socio-Ecological Framework Advancing the Contextual Theory of Elder Abuse Polyvictimization Research in Context Studies on Children and Adolescents Studies on Intimate Partner Violence Polyvictimization by Surrogate Decision-Makers Older Adult Polyvictims Amidst the Opioid Epidemic Section II: Clinical and Sociological Reflections on Polyvictimization Clinical Case Analysis Sociological Analysis Future Directions for Research and Practice Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 190 Perpetrators of Elder Abuse Introduction Prevalence of Elder Abuse and Perpetrators Framework for Studying Perpetrators of Elder Abuse Personal Characteristics of Perpetrators of Elder Abuse Age and Gender Race, Ethnicity, and Culture Personality Substance Abuse and Mental Health Conditions Relationships Between Perpetrators and Victims of Elder Abuse Community Settings Residential Settings Interventions for Perpetrators of Elder Abuse Supporting Care Arrangements Choosing and Monitoring Appropriate Surrogate Decision-Makers Expressing Preferences for Care Holding Perpetrators Accountable Recognizing of What Constitutes Elder Abuse and Why It Is Not Ethical or Moral Specifically Identifying Ageism as a Contributor to Elder Abuse Directions for Future Research The Role of Socioeconomic Status The Role of Mental Health Status The Role of Substance Abuse The Role of Interdependence The Role of Education Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 191 Systems Responses to Older Adult and Elder Abuse Introduction Background: Definitions and Prevalence Emergence of Elder Abuse as a Problem Requiring a Response Systems Response: Philosophy and Approach Identification of Elder Abuse Older Adult Abuse and the Health Care System Adult Protective Services The Aging Network Domestic Violence and Victims´ Services Criminal Justice and Legal System Responses A Multidisciplinary Response Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 192 Elder Abuse in Asia Introduction Aging Population in Asia Population Aging, Economic Growth, and Elder Abuse Sociocultural Specifics and Elder Abuse Intergenerational Relationships and Elder Abuse East Asia South Asia The Middle East: Arabs Gender and Elder Abuse Women as Victims East Asia South Asia The Middle East Culture-Specific Forms of Abuse East Asia South Asia Middle East Culture-Specific Response to Elder Abuse East Asia South Asia The Middle East Social Responses Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 193 Caregiving and Elder Abuse: A Complex Relationship Introduction: ``Do families really do these things?!´´ Key Definitions: ``The neighbors thought I was awful. They condemned me, because I hit an old man´´ Elder Caregiving Elder Abuse The Interface of Caregiving and Elder Abuse: ``You need to be around for a whole day to see what it´s like´´ Historical Perspectives Caregiving as Context A Portrait of Caregiving Current State of Knowledge: ``[Caregiving] was expected of me since childhood. I feel like I was programmed for this purpose´´ Theory Prevalence and Reporting Consequences Prevention and Intervention: ``I don´t want anyone´s help. I have my family. It´s not easy, but we´re all each other has´´ Key Points: ``I change her and she does it again. I tell her I´ll spank her if she don´t stop´´ Summary and Conclusions: ``He´s dead. Thank God´´ Cross-References References 194 Intersectionality of Elder Abuse and Mental Health Issues: Needs and Interventions for Victims Introduction The Perpetrator The Victim A Promising Intervention for Victims Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 195 Mothers´ Perspectives on Abuse by Adult Children Introduction Understanding Mothers with Dependent Adult Children: What the Literature Says Intergenerational Relationships in Later Life Mothering Difficult or Abusive Adult Children Child to Adult Violence The Ideology of Intensive Mothering Linked Lives of Mothers and Their Impaired Adult Children No Empty Nest: Motherwork in Later Life Types of Adult Child Problems Reported by Older Mothers Violating Maternal Expectations Feeling Disappointed and Disrespected Boundary Violations Attempting to Take Over Mother´s Space Physically Attacking Mother Ambivalence Whose Needs Take Precedence? Theirs or Mine? I´m Afraid Harm Will Come to Her I Can´t Walk Away: I´m Attached If I Wait, He Will Change Internalizing the Problem Who´s to Blame? Health Impacts on the Mother Actions for Self-Protection Frustration with Available Societal Interventions Conclusion Key Points Comply Cross-References References 196 Intersectionality of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture in Neglect, Abuse, and Violence Against Older Persons: Human Rights, Glo... Introduction COVID-19 and Older People: Heightened Risks in the Pandemic Environment Human Rights and Public and Global Health Frameworks: The Right to Health, Palliative Care and Pain Relief An Intersectional Lens on Elder Abuse: Historic Inequities in Social and Economic Determinants of Health and Health Disparities Elder Mistreatment and Black/African Americans: Research Findings Mistreatment and Latinx Older Adults Mistreatment of American Indian Elders Elder Mistreatment of Asian-American Older Adults Palliative Care as Public Health Policy Response and Intervention: Mitigation of Older Adult Risk and Suffering in Pandemics International Palliative Care Frameworks: The Public Health Strategy Universal Instrument to Promote Human Rights of Older People (Convention) Key Points Conclusion Cross-References References Section XXIII: Future Directions in Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Across the Lifespan 197 Future Directions in System Responses to Interpersonal Violence and Abuse: Community Perspectives Introduction Incorporating Advocacy and Policy into the Behavioral Health Professions Moving Back and Forth: Marrying Science and Policy An Interprofessional Obligation to Advocate for Communities in Need Formal Incorporation of Policy into Behavioral Health Training Models Formal Training Requirements Targeting Interpersonal Violence The Impact of Interpersonal Violence Understanding Interpersonal Violence Leads to Prevention and Mitigation Recognizing Social Determinants of Violence Managing Multiple Determinants in Prevention and Mitigation Strategies Personal Perspectives Effective Advocacy Concluding Reflections Key Points References 198 Future Directions in Interpersonal Violence and Abuse Interventions Across the Lifespan Introduction Child Abuse Historical and Current Neglect of Child Abuse Public Health Issue Secondary Intervention and Adverse Childhood Experiences Research Trauma-Based Treatment for Child Victims Parental Enhancement Programs Tertiary Intervention with Offending Parents Hotline for Good Parenting Rethinking Childhood Diagnoses as Family Systems Issues ``Failure to Be Present´´ as Child Neglect Intimate Partner Violence Research on Batterer Intervention Programs (BIPs) Measuring Effectiveness Future BIP Designs Systemic Interventions for Offenders and Victims Sexual Abuse and Rape Mass Public Campaign to Dismantle Rape Culture Address Barriers to Reporting Sexual Assault Trauma-Informed Intervention for Victims Changes to the Criminal Justice System Bring Men Along Intervention for Offenders Actions That Can Be Implemented Now Abuse of Older Adults Polyvictimization Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 199 Future Directions in Advocacy in Response to Interpersonal Violence Introduction Understanding Advocacy in Interpersonal Violence: A Brief Overview Advocacy is About Building Relationships Advocacy Is Transferring Resources Advocacy as Transformation Advocacy in the Gender-Based Violence Field: A Case Example Building Advocacy Interventions from the Individual to the Community: A Brief History A Move Towards Systems Advocacy Developing Engagement with the Criminal and Civil Legal Systems Expanded Engagement with Child Protective Services Professionalizing and Funding of the Movement Radical Visioning for the Future Culturally Specific Services Transformative Justice Advocacy Approach Develop Community-Based, Survivor-Led Advocacy Invest in a Practice of Advocacy for Primary Prevention Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 200 Trauma and Violence Across the Lifespan: Public Policy Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions Introduction Child Trauma and Violence Quantifying Child Abuse Addressing Child Abuse Through Policy Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) Children´s Justice Act and CAPE Family First Act of 2018 Modernizing Child Abuse Treatment and Prevention The National Child Traumatic Stress Network Intimate Partner Violence Interpersonal Violence on College Campuses Policies to Address IPV Violence Against Women Act Future Policy Directions Gun Violence/Community Violence Hate-Based Violence Hate Crime Statistics Act Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act Emerging and Future Policy Directions Elder Abuse Elder Justice Act Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References 201 Future Directions in Interpersonal Violence Prevention Across the Lifespan Introduction: What is Interpersonal Violence? Preventing Multiple Forms of Violence Across The Lifespan Interpersonal Violence Rarely Occurs in Isolation Promising Examples of Efforts to Prevent Multiple Forms of Violence Intervening at Multiple Levels of the Social Ecology Incorporate the Context of Violence into Prevention Programming Community Context Cultural Context Sociopolitical Context The Complex Interplay Between Various Levels of the Social Ecology The Importance of Selective and Indicated Prevention An Example Prevention Program that Combines Universal, Selective, and Indicated Strategies: Triple P An Example of the Need for Selective and Indicated Prevention: Campus Sexual Assault The Use of New and Emerging Technologies in Violence Prevention Key Points Summary and Conclusions Cross-References References 202 The Evolution of Interpersonal Violence Research and Prevention Across the Lifespan in the United States: The Past, Presen... Introduction The Past: Violence Emerges as a Public Health Issue Historical Evolution of the Field Documenting the Problem Predicting and Preventing Violence The Present: Moving Toward Integration Focusing Prevention Efforts During Childhood and Adolescence Focusing on Populations and Communities at Greatest Risk for Violence Focusing on Shared Risk and Protective Factors with the Greatest Impact Identification, Implementation, and Scale-Up of Approaches with Cross-Cutting Impact The Future Advance our Ability to Measure and Track Violence and Its Prevention in Real Time Conduct Research to Better Understand and Prevent Online Violence and Use Online Platforms to Prevent Violence Conduct Research to More Fully Understand ACEs and PCEs Expand Research on the Impact of Interventions/Policies on Multiple Forms of Violence Expand Implementation Research and Science Development of a Violence Prevention Workforce Focusing on Social Determinants of Health and Structural Inequities in Violence Prevention Efforts Key Points Summary and Conclusion Cross-References References Index