Encyclopedia of Big Data

Description

This encyclopedia will be an essential resource for our times, reflecting the fact that we currently are living in an expanding data-driven world.  Technological advancements and other related trends are contributing to the production of an astoundingly large and exponentially increasing collection of data and information, referred to in popular vernacular as “Big Data.”  Social media and crowdsourcing platforms and various applications ― “apps” ― are producing reams of information from the instantaneous transactions and input of millions and millions of people around the globe. The Internet-of-Things (IoT), which is expected to comprise tens of billions of objects by the end of this decade, is actively sensing real-time intelligence on nearly every aspect of our lives and environment.  The Global Positioning System (GPS) and other location-aware technologies are producing data that is specific down to particular latitude and longitude coordinates and seconds of the day.  Large-scale instruments, such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), are collecting massive amounts of data on our planet and even distant corners of the visible universe.  Digitization is being used to convert large collections of documents from print to digital format, giving rise to large archives of unstructured data.  Innovations in technology, in the areas of Cloud and molecular computing, Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning, and Natural Language Processing (NLP), to name only a few, also are greatly expanding our capacity to store, manage, and process Big Data.  In this context, the Encyclopedia of Big Data is being offered in recognition of a world that is rapidly moving from gigabytes to terabytes to petabytes and beyond.   While indeed large data sets have long been around and in use in a variety of fields, the era of Big Data in which we now live departs from the past in a number of key respects and with this departure comes a fresh set of challenges and opportunities that cut across and affect multiple sectors and disciplines, and the public at large.  With expanded analytical capacities at hand, Big Data is now being used for scientific inquiry and experimentation in nearly every (if not all) disciplines, from the social sciences to the humanities to the natural sciences, and more.  Moreover, the use of Big Data has been well established beyond the Ivory Tower.  In today’s economy, businesses simply cannot be competitive without engaging Big Data in one way or another in support of operations, management, planning, or simply basic hiring decisions.  In all levels of government, Big Data is being used to engage citizens and to guide policy making in pursuit of the interests of the public and society in general.  Moreover, the changing nature of Big Data also raises new issues and concerns related to, for example, privacy, liability, security, access, and even the veracity of the data itself. Given the complex issues attending Big Data, there is a real need for a reference book that covers the subject from a multi-disciplinary, cross-sectoral, comprehensive, and international perspective.  The Encyclopedia of Big Data will address this need and will be the first of such reference books to do so. Featuring some 500 entries, from "Access" to "Zillow," the Encyclopedia will serve as a fundamental resource for researchers and students, for decision makers and leaders, and for business analysts and purveyors.  Developed for those in academia, industry, and government, and others with a general interest in Big Data, the encyclopedia will be aimed especially at those involved in its collection, analysis, and use.  Ultimately, the Encyclopedia of Big Data will provide a common platform and language covering the breadth and depth of the topic for different segments, sectors, and disciplines.  Preface List of Topics About the Editors Contributors A Advanced Analytics Agile Data Why Disciplined Agile Big Data? Be Agile: An Agile Mindset for Data Professionals Do Agile: The Agile Database Techniques Stack Continuous Database Deployment Vertical Slicing Agile Data Modeling Clean Architecture and Design Database Refactoring Automated Database Testing Continuous Database Integration Configuration Management Last Words Further Reading AgInformatics Synonyms Definition Generalities Precision Agriculture (PA) Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) Agricultural Landscape Analysis and Planning Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Agriculture Synonyms Big Data and (Smart) Agriculture Applications of Big Data in Smart Agriculture Challenges and Implications Cross-References Further Reading AI Algorithm Overview Machine Learning Algorithms Algorithms for Big Data Management Societal Implications of Algorithms Cross-References Further Reading Algorithmic Analysis Algorithmic Complexity Synonyms Introduction An Example Mathematical Expression Some Examples Further Reading American Bar Association Membership Benefits Involving Big Data Benefits and Concerns of Technology in the Workplace Cross-References Further Reading American Civil Liberties Union Further Reading American Library Association ALA Divisions Working with Big Data Big Data Activities of the Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Animals Further Reading Anomaly Detection Synonyms Definition Introduction Anomaly Examples Anomaly Detection Types Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Anonymity Further Reading Anonymization Techniques Synonyms Introduction Noise Addition Differential Privacy K-Anonymity L-Diversity T-Closeness Conclusion Further Reading Anonymous Data Anthropology Further Reading Antiquities Trade, Illicit Cross-References Further Reading Apple Cross-References Further Reading Archaeology Introduction Big Data and the Archaeological Research Cycle Conclusion References Artificial Intelligence Synonyms Definition Introduction AI Disciplines AI Challenges and Successes Conclusions Further Reading Arts Further Reading Asian Americans Advancing Justice The Civil Rights Principles for the Era of Big Data Cross-References Further Reading Association Analysis Association Versus Causation Association Time Order Non-spurious Relationships Cross-References Further Reading Astronomy Definition Authoritarianism Further Reading Authorship Analysis and Attribution Synonyms Introduction Theory of Authorship Attribution Examples of Authorship Attribution in Practice How Does It work? Other Related Problems Conclusions Cross-References Further Reading Authorship Profiling Authorship Verification Automated Modeling/Decision Making Cross-References Further Reading Aviation Introduction Weather Maintenance and Monitoring Business Management . . .and the Military Further Reading B BD Hubs BD Spokes Behavioral Analytics Definition Applications Cross-References Further Reading Bibliometrics/Scientometrics Cross-References References Big Data Big Data Analytics Big Data and Theory Introduction Framework for Science in the Era of Big Data Application of Framework Conclusion Further Reading Big Data Concept Conceptual Dimensions Conceptual Sources and Allocations Analytical and Computational Capabilities Conclusion Further Reading Big Data Hubs and Spokes Big Data Integration Tools Big Data Literacy Cross-References Further Reading Big Data Quality Introduction Data Defined Data Quality Causes and Consequences Data Quality: Approaches Data Quality: Methodology in Profiling Metadata Conclusion Further Reading Big Data R&D Big Data Research and Development Initiative (Federal, U.S.) Synonyms Introduction The Fourth Paradigm What´s All the Excitement About? Kicking Off a Federal Big Data Research and Development Initiative Taking the Next Steps: Developing National, Multi-stakeholder Big Data Partnerships Developing an Interagency Strategic Plan Moving Toward the Future: Harnessing the Data Revolution In Summary Further Reading Big Data Theory Definition/Introduction Part I: Theory of Big Data in General Part II: Theory in Big Data and Data-Driven Science Conclusion Further Reading Big Data Workforce Skills-Based Classification Skill Mismatch Dilemmas Workforce Participation and Access Conclusion Further Reading Big Geo-data Synonyms Definition/Introduction Theoretical Aspects Social and Human Aspects Technical Aspects Conclusion Further Reading Big Georeferenced Data Big Geospatial Data Big Humanities Project History of Big Humanities Further Reading Big O Notation Big Variety Data Introduction Current Systems Distributed Systems Conclusion Further Reading Bioinformatics Background Biology, Information Technology, and Big Data Sets Bioinformatics Transparency and International Information Exchange Translational Bioinformatics Bioinformatics and Health Informatics Biomedical Data Analytics Challenges and Future Trends Further Reading Biomedical Data Challenges Cross-References Further Reading Biometrics Further Reading Biosurveillance Further Reading Blockchain Overview of Blockchain Technology Blockchain and Big Data The Dark Side of Blockchain Cross-References Further Reading Blogs History Technical Aspects Typology Characteristics Policy Blogs and Big Data Trends Cross-References Further Reading Border Control/Immigration Big Borders: Smart Control Through Big Data Further Reading Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies Brand Monitoring Introduction Brands and Consumers Understanding Consumption Motives and Practices Brand Monitoring for Marketing Research Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Business Subdomains in Business Studies Factors Shaping Contemporary Business Types of Contemporary Business Big Data and Researching Contemporary Business Cross-References Further Reading Business Intelligence Business Intelligence Analytics Synonyms Definition Introduction Main BI Features and Vendors BI Applications The BI Development Lifecycle Conclusion Further Reading Business-to-Community (B2C) Community Development Community Life Cycle Active Communities Cross-References Further Reading C Cancer Cancer Prevention and Early Detection Diagnosis and Treatment Survivorship and End-of-Life Care Challenges and Limitations Cross-References Further Reading Cell Phone Data Cell Phone Data Transmission and Reception Data Access and the Telecom Industry Data from Data Cross-References Further Reading Census Bureau (U.S.) Further Reading Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Further Reading Charter of Fundamental Rights (EU) Introduction Historical Development Surveillance Practices and Protection of Human Rights Cross-References Further Reading Chemistry Further Reading Clickstream Analytics Cross-References Further Reading Climate Change, Hurricanes/Typhoons/Cyclones Introduction Characteristics of TC Data Forecasting Cyclones Conclusion Further Reading Climate Change, Rising Temperatures Climate Change and Big Data Conclusion Further Reading Cloud Cloud Computing Infrastructure Implementation Models Conclusion Further Reading Cloud Services Choosing a Cloud Service Cloud Safety and Security Cross-References Further Reading Cluster Analysis Collaborative Filtering Synonyms Introduction Methodology Neighborhood-Based CF Algorithms User-Based CF Item-Based CF Model-Based CF Algorithms Factorization Methods Adaptive Neighborhood Learning Methods Conclusion Cross-References References Column-Based Database Common Sense Media Media Reviews and Ratings Education Advocacy Research Organization History, Structure and Partnerships Cross-References Further Reading Communication Quantity Further Reading Communications Further Reading Community Management Community Moderation Complex Event Processing (CEP) Synonyms Overview Key Research Findings Query Components Query Languages Time and Order Rule Evaluation Strategies Further Directions for Research Uncertainty in CEP Rule Learning Scalability Cross-References Further Reading Complex Event Recognition Complex Networks Cross-References Further Reading Computational Ontology Computational Social Sciences Cross-References Further Reading Computer Science Computer Science and Big Data The Emergence of Computer Science Computational Social Science Digital Methods Further Reading Computer-Assisted Reporting Consensus Methods Console Content Management System (CMS) Definition Uses Functionality CMS Options Cross-References Further Reading Content Moderation Synonyms Definition History Commercial Content Moderation and the Contemporary Social Media Landscape Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Content Screening Context Contexts Synonyms Definition Contextual Reasoning Conclusion Further Reading Contextual Inquiry Control Panel Core Curriculum Issues (Big Data Research/Analysis) Definition Role of the Curriculum in ``Education´´ Versus ``Training´´ Determining the Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities Relating to Big Data That Should Be Taught Utility of Training Versus a Curriculum Around Big Data Conclusions Further Reading Corporate Social Responsibility CSR-Related Concerns Implications of Big Data Contributions to CSR Further Reading Corpus Linguistics Introduction History Theory Applications of Corpus Linguistics Conclusions Cross-References Further Reading Correlation Versus Causation Cross-References Further Reading COVID-19 Pandemic Overview Benefits and Opportunities Downsides and Dilemmas Looking Forward Cross-References Further Reading Crowdsourcing Cross-References Further Reading Cultural Analytics Definition Big Cultural Data Commercial Implications Critique of Cultural Analytics Conclusions Further Reading Curriculum, Higher Education, and Social Sciences Background Big Data Comes to the Social Sciences Cross-References Further Reading Curriculum, Higher Education, Humanities Introduction Types of Courses Common Themes Further Resources Cross-References Further Reading Cyber Espionage Introduction Vulnerable Technologies Privacy Laws Conclusion Further Reading Cyberinfrastructure (U.S.) Introduction and Background Current Technological State Accelerating Technological Advance Conclusion Further Reading Cybersecurity Definition and Outlook Cybersecurity and Cyberwar Cybersecurity and Privacy Business Security Online Cybersecurity and Freedom of Speech Summary Cross-References Further Reading D Dark Web Darknet Dashboard Synonyms Definition/Introduction Historical and Technological Evolution of Dashboards Control Centers Dashboards for Planning and Decision-Making Dashboards for Citizens Taxonomy of Dashboards Conclusions Further Reading Data Data Aggregation Definition Data Aggregation Processes and Major Issues Pre-aggregation Aggregation Post-Aggregation Tools Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Data Aggregators Data Analyst Data Analytics Data Anonymization Data Architecture and Design Introduction Conceptual Big Data System Architecture Exogenous Services Access Control Interoperability Indigenous Services Metadata Data Standards Data Analytics Context Delineation Data Acquisition Data Preparation Data Integration Data Anonymization Data Validation Data Exploration Data Staging Model Development Presentation of Findings User Delivery Big Data System Infrastructure Resource Administration Data Storage Orchestration Messaging Network Platform Conceptual Big Data System Design Framework User Requirements System Infrastructure Requirements Data Acquisition Requirements Interoperability Requirements Project Planning and Execution Caveats and Future Trends Further Reading Data Bank Data Brokers Data Brokers and Data Services Synonyms Background Data Brokers Data Sources Methods for Data Collection and Synthesis Data Markets The Hidden Business Benefits and Risks Choice as an Individual Conclusion Further Reading Data Center Synonyms Definition/Introduction Today´s Data Center Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Data Cleaning Data Cleansing Synonyms Introduction Data Life Cycle Data Cleansing Process Examine Explore Edit Overview Tools Conclusion Further Reading Data Consolidators Data Discovery Synonyms Introduction/Definition History Usage in Different Contexts In Business Intelligence In Analytical Disciplines User Involvement and Automation Discovery in the Big Data Age Principle 1: Support a Variety of Analysis Methods Principle 2: One Size Does Not Fit All Principles 3: Make Data Accessible Research and Application Challenges Cross-References Further Reading Data Exhaust Overview Description Additional Terminology Generation of Data Exhaust Example of Data Exhaust Sources of Data Exhaust Potential Value Challenges Evolution Conclusion Further Reading Data Fusion Definition/Introduction Integration of Data Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Data Governance Introduction Distinctions Between Big Data Governance, Big Data Management, Big Data Operations, and Data Analytics Big Data Governance Conceptual Framework Big Data Governance Foundations Guiding Principles, Policies, and Processes Big Data Analytics, Ethics, and Legal Considerations Big Data Privacy and Security Lexica, Ontologies, and Business Rules Metadata Big Data Quality Big Data Interoperability Big Data Analytics Challenges and Future Trends Further Reading Data Hacker Data Integration Synonyms Introduction Traditional ETL Methods with Hadoop as a Solution The Challenges of Data Integration Real-Time Scenarios for Data Integration Conclusion Further Reading Data Integrity Further Reading Data Journalism Data Lake Overview Key Research Findings Architecture Ingestion Layer Storage Layer Transformation Layer Interaction Layer Data Lake Implementations Future Directions for Research Lazy and Pay-as-You-Go Concepts Schema-on-Read and Evolution Mapping Management Query Rewriting and Optimization Data Governance and Data Quality Data Models and Semantics in Data Lakes Cross-References Further Reading Data Management and Artificial Intelligence (AI) Data Mining Synonyms Introduction History of DM Types of DM Government, Commercial, and Other Applications of DM Conclusion Cross-References References Data Mining Algorithms Data Monetization Further Reading Data Monitoring Data Munging and Wrangling Cross-References Further Reading Data Pre-processing Data Preservation Data Privacy Data Processing Synonyms Introduction History Methods Data Quality Data Processing for Big Data Big Data Processing Frameworks Further Reading Data Profiling Synonyms Cross-References Further Reading Data Provenance Synonyms Introduction Big Data Provenance in Big Data Application of Provenance Provenance in Security Challenges Opportunities Conclusion Further Reading Data Quality Management Introduction Conceptual Framework Dimensions of Big Data Quality Data Quality Metrics Importance of Metadata Quality Methodological Framework Data Profiling Data Cleansing Data Integration Data Augmentation Missing Data Challenges and Future Trends Further Reading Data Reduction Data Repository Synonyms Introduction Repository Types Data Publication and Citation Data Management and Provenance Value-Added Service Cross-References Further Reading Data Resellers Data Science Defining Data Science Controversy in Defining the Field Opportunities in Data Science Challenges to Data Science Cross-References Further Reading Data Scientist Synonyms Definition/Introduction Defining a ``Data Scientist´´ Data Hacking and Processing Mathematical and Statistical Background Domain Expertise The Demand for Data Scientists Data Science Training Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Data Security Data Security Management Data Service Data Sharing Definition FAIR Principles Findability Accessibility Interoperability Reusability The Rise of Data Sharing Best Practices Data Generation Data Sharing Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Data Storage Synonyms Introduction Data Storage Devices Technologies Impacts of Big Data Storage Structured, Unstructured, and Semi-structured Data FAIR Data Cross-References Further Reading Data Store Data Stream Data Streaming Synonyms Introduction The Internet of Things (IoT) Data Science Aspect in Data Stream Data Stream Management System (DSMS) Stream Reasoning Practical Approach Further Reading Data Synthesis Definition/Introduction The Emergence of Data Synthesis How Data Synthesis Is Conducted? Main Challenges Application of Synthetic Data Conclusion References Data Tidying Data Virtualization Further Reading Data Visualisation Data Visualization Synonyms Definition/Introduction Data Visualization as Knowledge Translation The Rise of Visual Culture Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Data Visualizations Data Warehouse Data Wrangling Database Management Systems (DBMS) Overview Architectures Transaction Management and ACID Properties Distributed Systems and Transaction Management DBMS Categories Relational DBMS NoSQL Database Management Systems Streaming Other Data Management Systems in the Context of Big Data Cross-References References Datacenter Data-Driven Discovery Datafication Definition Overview The Datalogical Turn The Datafication of Social Life Critiques of Datafication Conclusion Further Reading Data-Information-Knowledge-Action Model Synonyms Introduction Understand the Concepts Mange the Relationships Reverse Thinking Communities of Practice Cross-References Further Reading Data-Information-Knowledge-Wisdom (DIKW) Pyramid, Framework, Continuum Modern Developments and Variations Drawing It All Together and Appraising DIKW Further Reading Datavis Dataviz Decision Theory Decision Theory and Disciplines Factors Determining Decisions Decision Theory and Methodology Decision Theory and Game Theory Game Theory - Definition and Basic Concepts Game Theory Strategies, Decision Theory and Big Data Cross-References Further Reading Deep Learning Introduction The History of Deep Learning Deep Learning as a Machine Learning Paradigm Deep Learning Applications and Challenges Concepts Related to Deep Learning Future of Deep Learning Cross-References Further Reading Deep Web Defect Detection De-identification De-identification/Re-identification Introduction Privacy and Personally Identifiable Information De-identifying Data Re-identification Cross-References Further Reading Demographic Data Cross-References Further Reading Digital Advertising Alliance Enforcement and Criticism Further Reading Digital Agriculture Digital Divide Synonyms Cross-References Further Reading Digital Ecosystem The Definition of Digital Ecosystem The Applications of Digital Ecosystem Business and Entrepreneurship Education Computer Science Artificial Life and Intelligence The Future Research on Digital Ecosystem Conclusion Further Reading Digital Inequality Digital Knowledge Network Divide (DKND) Digital Literacy Digital Access Conceptual Scope Conclusion Further Reading Digital Literacy Cross-References Further Reading Digital Storytelling, Big Data Storytelling Tools in Digital Storytelling Methodologies of Studying Digital Storytelling Applications and Functions of Digital Storytelling Big Data Storytelling Cross-References Further Reading Websites DIKW Pyramid Disaster Management Disaster Planning Definition/Introduction Planning for Disasters Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Discovery Analytics, Discovery Informatics Cross-References Further Reading Diversity Diversity and Big Data Self-reported Diversity Information Private and Public Records and Diversity Social Media and Retail Data Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Document-Oriented Database DP Driver Behavior Analytics Driver or Driving Behavior Analytics Conclusions Further Reading Drones Further Reading Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Introduction Origins and Evolution Missions Organization Criticisms From Databases to Big Data Cross-References Further Reading E E-agriculture Earth Science Further Reading Eco-development E-Commerce Synonyms Debates on a Multidimensional Phenomenon Tendencies on E-Commerce Cross-References Further Reading Economics Processes of Rational Management (Change from Homo Oeconomicus to the Machine of Economics) Economics: Different Typologies and Subtypes Goods: Products and Services Economy and Technological Development Economics and Big Data Cross-References Further Reading Education Education and Training Background Educational Applications Privacy Issues and Other Concerns Cross-References Further Reading Electronic Commerce Electronic Health Records (EHR) Cross-References Further Reading Ensemble Methods Synonyms Further Reading Entertainment Cross-References Further Reading Environment The Term Environment Related Terms: Nature Related Terms: Ecosystem/Ecology Human Impact on Environment The Goal of Sustainable Development Intelligent Management of the Environment: Big Data Cross-References Further Reading Epidemiology Early Uses of Big Data in Epidemiology Contemporary and Future Uses of Big Data in Epidemiology Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Error Tracing Ethical and Legal Issues Definition Introduction Legal Implications/Issues Ethical Implications/Issues Conclusion Further Reading Ethics Method Integrity Bias Mitigation Data Privacy and Security Assurance Summary Further Reading Ethnographic Observation European Commission Introduction Election Procedure and Organizational Structure The European Commission´s Legislative Work The European Commission´s Position Toward Big Data The European Commission´s Concerns on Big Data Cross-References Further Reading European Commission: Directorate-General for Justice (Data Protection Division) Introduction The Data Protection Division Latest Developments in the Data Protection Regulation Possible Impact of the Data Protection Regulation Cross-References Further Reading European Union Introduction EU Main Institutions Big Data and the EU Cross-References Further Reading European Union Data Protection Supervisor Event Stream Processing Evidence-Based Medicine Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading F Facebook Cross-References Further Reading Facial Recognition Technologies History Approaches Datasets and Benchmarks Software Cross-References Further Reading Factory of the Twenty-First Century FAIR Data Financial Data and Trend Prediction Synonyms Introduction Technical Analysis Machine-Learning Algorithms Classification of Algorithms to Detect Different Financial Patterns Learning Algorithms Conclusion Further Reading Financial Econometrics Financial Forecasting Financial Services The Nature of the Financial Services Sector The Importance of Big Data for the Financial Services Sector Further Reading Forester Forestry Synonyms Definition What Is Forestry? Relations to Other Disciplines Types of Forestry Examples of Prominent Journals Further Reading Fourth Amendment Amendment IV Cross-References Further Reading Fourth Industrial Revolution Overview Role of Big Data and Analytics Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Fourth Paradigm Further Reading France Introduction The State of Big Data in France Conclusion Further Reading G Gender and Sexuality Introduction Big Data on Gender and Sexuality Big Data and Gender Big Data and Sexual Identity Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Genealogy Further Reading Geographic Information Geography Cross-References Further Reading Geospatial Big Data Geospatial Data Geospatial Information Geospatial Scientometrics Google Google: The Search Engine AdWords Other Products and Services Services and Information Searches Social and Communication Services Maps, Location and Exploration Tools and Utilities Developer Tools and Services Cross-References Further Reading Google Analytics Features Metrics Benefits of Google Analytics Privacy Certified Partner Network Google Analytics Premium Cross-References Further Reading Google Books Ngrams Synonyms Introduction Google Books Ngrams Using the Google Books Ngrams Corpus Uses of the Corpus Criticisms of the Google Books Ngram Corpus Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Google Flu Cross-References Further Reading Governance The Impact of Big Data Why Big Data Governance Big Data Governance Management Big Data Core Disciplines Government Big Data Policies and Regulations Further Reading Governance Instrument Granular Computing Introduction Granule and Level Definition Granular Computing and Big Data Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Graph-Theoretic Computations/Graph Databases Introduction Paths in Graphs Graph Patterns Graph Partitions Graph Databases Conclusions Further Reading H Harnessing the Data Revolution HDR Health Care Delivery Creating Health Care Delivery Systems Health Care Delivery System Benefits Challenges for Health Care Delivery Systems Cross-References Further Reading Health Informatics Background Electronic Health Records Health Information Exchange Health Domain Data Standards Health Data Analytics Big Data and Health Informatics Challenges and Future Trends Further Reading High Dimensional Data Overview Issues and Challenges Strategies and Solutions Subset or Feature Selection Shrinkage Methods Dimensionality Reduction Other Methods Concluding Remarks Cross-References Further Reading HIPAA Enactment HITECH Amendments to HIPAA Big Data Utilization of HIPAA Data Data Outside the Scope of HIPAA Cross-References Further Reading Human Resources Acknowledgment Bibliography/Further Readings Humanities (Digital Humanities) Big Data in the Humanities Definitions of Digital Humanities History of the Field Subfields of Digital Humanities Controversies and Debates Cross-References Further Reading I Indexed Web, Indexable Web Indicator Panel Industrial and Commercial Bank of China The Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC) Cross-References Further Reading Informatics Synonyms Definition History Need for ``X-Informatics´´ Informatics in Data-Information-Knowledge Ecosystem Concepts in Informatics Informatics in Scientific Research Example Use case Conclusion Further Reading Information Commissioner, United Kingdom Cross-References Further Reading Information Discovery Information Engineering Information Extraction Information Hierarchy Information Overload Background History of Information Overload Definition Information Overload: Double-Edged Sword: Problem or Opportunity? Conclusion Further Reading Information Quantity Further Reading Information Science Information Society Cross-References Further Reading Information Studies Information Systems Information Theory Information Visualisation Information Visualization Informatique Instrument Board Integrated Data System Definition/Introduction Purpose of an IDS Key Elements to Build an IDS Maintenance Challenges Identity Management and Data Quality Data Privacy Ethics Data Sharing Data Security Examples Conclusion Further Reading Intelligent Agents Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Overview Opportunities, Prospects, and Applications Issues, Challenges, and Complexities Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Interactive Data Visualization Definition History From Static to Interactive User Control Types of Interactive Data Visualizations Tools Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading International Development Big Data in International Development Research Big Data in Practice Cross-References Further Reading International Labor Organization Focus Decent Work Agenda ILO Data ILO, Big Data, and the Gender Data ILO, the UN, and Big Data Cross-References Further Reading International Nongovernmental Organizations (INGOs) Emergence and Main Characteristics of INGOs INGO Nonprofit Nature and Debates on Sources of Funding INGOs for Development Cooperation, Humanitarian Aid, and Human Rights Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Internet Association, The Synonyms Introduction Main Text Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Internet Lobby Internet of Things (IoT) Cross-References Further Reading Internet Trade Association Internet Trade Organization Internet: Language The New Language on Internet Identity on the Internet Further Reading Invisible Web, Hidden Web Italy Introduction Data Protection Agency and Privacy Issues Conclusion Cross-References References J Journalism Origins of Journalism and Big Data How Do Journalists Use Big Data? Data Sets and Methodologies Limitations of Big Data for Journalism Cross-References Further Reading Special Issues and Volumes K KDD KDDM Keycatching Keylogger Keystroke Capture Synonyms Introduction How Keystroke Capture (KC) Works The Scope of the Problem Internationally Tackling the Problem Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Keystroke Logger Keystroke Recorder Key-Value-Based Database Knowledge Discovery Knowledge Graph Knowledge Hierarchy Knowledge Management Types of Knowledge Knowledge Transfer Factors Determining Knowledge Management Knowledge Management and Methodology Knowledge and Big Data Future of Knowledge Management Cross-References Further Reading Knowledge Pyramid L LexisNexis Data Centers Mainframe Servers Telecommunications Physical Dimensions of the Miamisburg Data Center Security Breach LexisNexis Group Expansion Cross-References Further Reading Lightnet Link Prediction in Networks Further Reading Link/Graph Mining Synonyms Definition/Introduction Network Representations of Data Representation Types of Link/Graph Mining Techniques Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading LinkedIn Company Information Relevance of Data Impact on the Recruiting Industry Cross-References Further Reading M Machine Intelligence Machine Learning Introduction Machine Learning Approaches Machine Learning Models Classification and Regression Linear Regression K-Nearest Neighbors (KNNs) Decision Trees (DSs) Bayesian Classifiers Support Vector Machines (SVMs) Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) Dimensionality Reduction Clustering Association Rule Mining Model Fitness and Evaluation Applications Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Maritime Data Maritime Shipping Maritime Transport Synonyms Ancient Origins of Maritime Transport Data Maritime Transport and Big Data The Future of Maritime Transport Data Cross-References Further Reading Mathematics Introduction The Growth of Data The Power of Data and Their Impact on Science and Mathematics Mathematical Techniques Further Reading Media Synonyms Definition/Introduction Big Data in the Media Context Data Journalism Media Organizations and Big Data Big Data Between Social Media, Ethics, and Surveillance Conclusion Cross-References References Media Ethics Medicaid Introduction Privacy and Health Care Coordination Reducing Medicaid Costs Limitations of Medicaid Big Data Conclusion Further Reading Metadata Know Before Use Metadata Hierarchy Domain-Specific Metadata Schemas Annotating a Web of Data Linking for Tracking A Metadata Life Cycle Cross-References Further Reading Middle East Synonyms Definition Introduction The Digital Age in the Middle East Software Arabization: The Next Frontier Bridging the Digital Divide Conclusion References Mid-East Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Mixture-of-Experts Mobile Analytics Cross-References Further Reading Multiprocessing Synonyms Introduction Concurrent Versus Parallel Processing Programming for Multiprocessing Performance when Multiprocessing Multiprocessing Versus Multi-Threading Usage with Big Data Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Multi-threading Introduction A Basic Example Conceptual Foundations Process Versus Thread Core Versus Thread Threads and Shared Memory Access Common Multi-threading Design Patterns Common Pitfalls in Multi-threading Multi-threaded Design Optimization Conclusion Further Reading N National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Controversy Cross-References Further Reading National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Cross-References Further Reading National Organization for Women Cross-References Further Reading National Security Administration (NSA) National Security Agency (NSA) Agency History and Operations The NSA in the Twenty-First Century Technological Capabilities Surveillance and Countersurveillance Activities Legal Oversight Cross-References Further Reading Natural Disasters Natural Hazards Synonyms Introduction Natural Hazard Mitigation Preparedness (Prevention and Protection) Response Recovery Conclusion Further Reading Natural Language Processing (NLP) Linguistic Foundations NLP Text Analysis Tasks NLP Text-based Information Extraction Summary Further Reading Netflix Introduction Netflix and Big Data Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Network Advertising Initiative Initial Evolution of NAI Self-Regulatory Guidelines Assessment of NAI Further Reading Network Analysis Network Analytics Synonyms Network Analytical Methods Algorithmic Challenges Streaming Data Visualizing Big Data Networks Methodological Challenges Conclusions Cross-References Further Reading Network Data Modes of Networks The Adjacency Matrix The Incidence Matrix Weighted Networks Signed Networks Directed Networks Quality of Network Data Large-Scale Network Data Cross-References Further Reading Network Science Neural Networks Further Reading NoSQL (Not Structured Query Language) Synonyms Introduction Classification Redis Column-Oriented Databases Document-Oriented Database MongoDB Graph Database Neo4j NoSQL Pros and Cons Advantages Open Source Fast Data Processing Scalability Disadvantages Conclusion Further Reading NSF Nutrition Controversy Cross-References Further Reading O Online Advertising Types of Online Advertising Targeting Privacy Concerns Cross-References Further Reading Online Analytical Processing Online Commerce Online Identity Identity Expression Identity Censorship Identity Detection Real and Imagined Audience for Identity Claims Family Identity Cultural Identity Cross-References Further Reading Ontologies Synonyms Definition History Ontology Components Ontology Engineering Why Develop Ontologies? Ontology Development Process Design Criteria for Ontologies Ontology Languages Ontology Engineering and Big Data Ontology Learning Further Reading Open Data Further Reading Open-Source Software History of Open-Source Software C-form Organizational Architecture Prominent Examples of Open-Source Big Data Projects The Future Cross-References Further Reading P Parallel Processing Participatory Health and Big Data Cross-References Further Reading Patient Records Cross-References Further Reading Patient-Centered (Personalized) Health Cross-References Further Reading PatientsLikeMe Introduction Business Model Patient Members Big Data and PatientsLikeMe Other Issues Further Reading Pattern Recognition Persistent Identifiers (PIDs) for Cultural Heritage Further Reading Personally Identifiable Information Pharmaceutical Industry History of Data Mining Used for Pharmaceutical R&D Data Mining in the Pharmaceutical Industry as a Form of Controversy The Future of Data Mining in the Pharmaceutical Industry Cross-References Further Reading Policy Policy Analytics Overview Prospects and Potentialities Downsides, Dilemmas, and Challenges Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Political Science Cross-References Further Reading Pollution, Air Sources of Air Pollution The Impacts of Air Pollution New Technologies for Air Pollution: Big Data Cross-References References Further Reading Pollution, Land What Causes Land Pollution? Consequences of Land Pollution Control Measures for Land Pollution Cross-References Further Reading Pollution, Water What Causes Water Pollution? Water Pollution Control Cross-References Further Reading Precision Agriculture Precision Farming Precision Population Health Synonyms Definition What Is Precision Population Health? Precision Population Health Opportunities Precision Population Health Challenges Cross-References References Precision Public Health Predictive Analytics Predictive Analytics and Forecasting Predictive Modeling Methods Visual Predictive Analytics Predictive Analytics Example Predictive Analytics Fallacies Predictive/Descriptive/Prescriptive Predictive Analytics Applications Predictive Modeling and Other Forecasting Techniques Cross-References References Prevention Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Privacy Origins and Definition History Privacy as a Human Right Privacy and Personal Data Privacy as a Personal Right Privacy and Big Data Summary Cross-References Further Reading Probabilistic Matching Definition/Introduction Why Probabilistic Matching? Steps for Probabilistic Matching Applications Data Management Data Warehousing and Business Intelligence Medical History and Practice Longitudinal Study Software Link Plus The Link King Other Public Software Known Commercial Software Conclusion Further Readings Profiling Cross-References Further Reading Psychology Psychology Cognitive and Rational Fields Social Field Psychological Data as Big Data The Unique Role of Psychology in Big Data Cross-References Further Reading R Recommender Systems Introduction Models Variants and Extensions Cross-References References Regression Linear Regression Nonlinear Regression Logistic Regression Regression in Big Data Cross-References Further Reading Regulation Synonyms Further Reading Relational Data Analytics Religion Institutional Religion Individual Religion Numerous or Numinous Cross-References Further Reading Risk Analysis Definition and Introduction Interdependencies Data: Quality and Sources Risk Analysis Methods Probabilistic Risk Assessment Levels of Risk Analysis Catastrophe Modeling Assumptions: Cascading Failures Right Then Wrong: Google Flu Trends Conclusions Cross-References References R-Programming R and Big Data Comparison with Other Statistical Software SPSS SAS Stata Python R Syntax and Use More than Statistics Programming Limitations Further Reading Rule S Salesforce Types of Widgets Salesforce Uses Salesforce Service Offerings Cross-References Further Reading Satellite Imagery/Remote Sensing Definition Introduction Historical Background Methods Applications Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Scientometrics Cross-References Further Reading Semantic Data Model Semantic/Content Analysis/Natural Language Processing Introduction Tools and Resources Preprocessing Document-Term Matrices Matrix Analysis Vector Space Semantics and Machine Learning Conclusion Cross-References References Semiotics Background Semiotics: Overview Semantics: Lexica and Ontologies Syntagmatics: Relationships and Rules Syntactics: Metadata Pragmatics Summary Further Reading Semi-structured Data Definition Data Analysis Data Management Cross-References Further Reading Sensor Technologies Definition/Introduction Prevalence of Sensors Personal Health Monitoring Smart Home Environmental Monitoring Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Sentic Computing Further Reading Sentiment Analysis Approaches Levels of Analysis Challenges and Limitations Cross-References Further Reading Server Farm Silviculture ``Small´´ Data Synonyms Introduction Understanding ``Big Data´´ as ``Data´´ Analysis and Interpretation of ``Big Data´´ Is Based on Methods for ``Small Data´´ Sample Versus Population Inference, Estimation, and Prediction Analysis, Interpretation, and Decision Making Conclusion Further Reading Smart Agriculture Smart Cities Definition/Introduction The Challenges of Intelligent Governance Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Social Media Theoretical Foundations of Social Media The Emergence of Citizen Journalism Social Movements Cross-References Further Reading Social Media and Security Introduction Definitions State of the Art Research Methods Research Challenges Conclusion Further Reading Acknowledgment References Social Network Analysis Social Network Analysis: Origin and Introduction Social Networks: Main Determinants and Characteristics Main Concepts and Terms in Social Network Analysis (SNA) Types of Social Networks Methods of Investigating Social Networks Social Network Analysis and Big Data Studies Cross-References Further Reading Social Sciences Cross-References Further Reading Socio-spatial Analytics Cross-References Further Reading South Korea Cross-References Further Reading Space Research Paradigm Post-Space Age Advancements Space-Based Earth Sciences Ground- and Space-Based Astronomy Paradigm Shift Earth Science Archives Astronomy Archives Analytical Challenges Summary Cross-References Further Reading Spain Further Reading Spatial Big Data Spatial Data Synonyms Introduction Raster and Vector Representations Spatial Data Service Open-Source Approaches Spatial Intelligence Cross-References References Spatial Econometrics Spatial Econometrics and Big Data Conclusions Cross-References Further Reading Spatial Scientometrics Synonyms Definition/Introduction Main Research Topics Key Techniques and Analysis Methods Challenges in the Big Data Age Conclusion Further Reading Spatiotemporal Analytics Further Reading Speech Processing Speech Recognition Standardization Definition/Introduction A Simple Example Beyond Z Direct Versus Indirect Standardization Internal Standardization External Standardization Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading State Longitudinal Data System Definition Purpose of the SLDS Information Offered Statewide Longitudinal Data Systems Grant Program Challenges Training/Education Provider Participation Privacy Issues and State Longitudinal Data Systems FERPA Interpretation Maintaining Longitudinal Data Examples Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Statistician Statistics Storage Introduction Storage Systems Distributed Storage Conclusion References Storage Media Storage System Stream Reasoning Structured Data Structured Query Language (SQL) Introduction Definitions Flat File Databases Versus Relational Databases: A Comparison Types of SQL Commands SQL Extensions Further Reading Stylistics Stylometry Supercomputing, Exascale Computing, High Performance Computing Supercomputing and High Performance Computing (HPC) Supercomputing Projects Around the World Exascale Computing Applications of HPC Supercomputing and Big Data Architectures and Software Further Reading Supply Chain and Big Data Introduction Supply Chain Activities Data Sources Advanced Barcodes and RFID Tags IoT Devices Cameras and Computer Vision Wearables Data Streams and Archives Internet and Social Media Supply Chain Opportunities for Big Data Sales and Operations Planning Sourcing Manufacturing Warehousing Transportation Point of Sale Conclusion References Surface Web Surface Web vs Deep Web vs Dark Web Synonyms Key Points Technological Fundamentals Key Applications Behavioral Aspects of Users Topology of the Web Socio-technical Implications Challenges Future Directions Further Reading Sustainability Synonyms Definition/Introduction Origins of the Term: First Definitions and Interpretations Sustainability and Institutions Sustainability Measures, Big Data, and Assessment Frameworks Conclusions: Future of Sustainable Decision Making with Big Data Cross-References Further Reading Sustainable Development Systemology Systems Science Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Frameworks Key Applied Fields Conclusion Further Reading Systems Theory T Tableau Software Introduction History Tableau and Big Data Products Licenses Competitors Conclusions Cross-References Further Reading Taxonomy Technological Singularity Cross-References Further Reading Telemedicine Overview Regulation Benefits Barriers Telemedicine and Big Data Looking Forward Cross-References Further Reading Testing and Evaluation The Big Data Research and Development Initiative (TBDRDI) Time Series Time Series Analysis Time Series Analytics Synonyms Introduction The Evolution of Time Series Analytics Time Series Analytics and Big Data Contending with Massive Amounts of Data Analysis and Forecasting Autoregressive, Moving Average, and Mixed Autoregressive Moving Average Models Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) Models Vector Autoregressive (VAR) Models Error Correction Models Challenges Nonstationarity Autocorrelation Missing Data and Incompatible Sampling Rates Conclusion Cross-References Further Reading Time Series Data Transnational Crime Further Reading Transparency Definition Implementation Intellectual History Big Data Transparency Criticism Summary Cross-References Further Reading Transportation Visualization Cross-References Further Reading Treatment Treatment and Big Data Controversy Cross-References Further Reading U United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Cross-References Further Reading Unstructured Data Upturn Introduction Background Criminal Justice Lending Voting Big Data and Civil Rights Newsletter Cross-References Further Reading V Verderer Verification Visible Web Visual Representation Visualization Synonyms Introduction Visualization and Data Visualization Visualization in the Data Life Cycle Visual Analytics Standards and Best Practices Cross-References References Vocabulary Voice Assistants Voice Data Voice User Interaction Synonyms Introduction to Voice Interaction History of Conversational Interfaces The Introduction of Voice Assistants Expanding Voice Interfaces Further Reading Voice User Interfaces Vulnerability Cross-References Further Reading W Web Scraping Further Reading White House Big Data Initiative Synonyms Introduction History of the White House Big Data Initiative Projects of the White House Big Data Initiative Influences of the Initiative and Expected Outcomes Conclusion Cross-References References White House BRAIN Initiative Synonyms Introduction History and Aims of the Initiative Projects Undertaken by the Initiative Earlier Efforts and Influences Conclusion Cross-References References WikiLeaks Cross-References Further Reading Wikipedia Cross-References Further Reading World Bank Cross-References Further Reading Z Zappos History of the Company Security Breach Lawsuits Holacracy Innovation Cross-References Further Reading Zillow Overview and Business Model Zillow and the Real Estate Industry Cross-References Further Reading