Geosystems Core

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Cover Inside Front Cover Title Page Copyright Page Brief Contents Contents Preface Acknowledgments Digital & Print Resources About the Authors Introduction to Physical Geography I.1. The World Around Us Asking Geographic Questions I.2. The Science of Geography Geographic Perspectives The Scientific Process Human–Earth Interactions in the 21st Century I.3. Earth Systems Systems Theory Earth Spheres & Systems Organization in Geosystems Core I.4. Earth Locations & Times Earth’s Dimensions & Shape Earth’s Reference Grid Meridians & Global Time I.5. Maps & Cartography Basic Map Elements The Scale of Maps Map Projections Types of Maps I.6. Modern Geoscience Tools Global Positioning System Remote Sensing Geographic Information Systems & Geovisualizatio The Human Denominator 1: Seasons and the Atmosphere Introduction Review GeoLab: Mapping for Sustainability: How Eco-Friendly Is Your Campus? 1. Solar Energy, Seasons, & the Atmosphere 1.1. Our Galaxy & Solar System Earth’s Place in Space Dimensions, Distances, & Earth’s Orbit 1.2. Energy from the Sun Solar Activity & Solar Wind Auroras 1.3. Electromagnetic Spectrum Comparing Earth & Sun as Radiating Bodies 1.4. Incoming Energy & Net Radiation Insolation & the Solar Constant Uneven Distribution of Insolation Global Net Radiation 1.5. The Seasons Seasonality Reasons for Seasons March of the Seasons 1.6. Atmospheric Composition Atmospheric Profile Atmospheric Gases 1.7. Atmospheric Temperature Thermosphere Mesosphere Stratosphere Troposphere 1.8. The Atmosphere’s Functional Layers Ionosphere Ozone layer Stratospheric Ozone Losses: A Continuing Health Hazard 1.9. Variable Atmospheric Components Natural Sources of Air Pollution Natural Factors That Affect Air Pollution 1.10. Anthropogenic Pollution Photochemical Smog Industrial Smog & Sulfur Oxides Particulates Effects of the Clean Air Act The Human Denominator 1: Seasons & the Atmosphere Chapter 1: Review GeoLab1: Seasonal Changes: What is the role of latitude in changing insolation & day length? 2. Atmospheric Energy & Global Temperatures 2.1. Energy Balance Essentials Energy & Heat Methods of Heat Transfer Shortwave & Longwave Radiation 2.2. Insolation Input & Albedo Scattering (Diffuse Radiation) Reflection & Albedo Absorption 2.3. The Greenhouse Effect, Clouds, & Atmospheric Warming The Greenhouse Effect & Atmospheric Warming Clouds & Earth’s “Greenhouse” Aerosols & Global Temperatures 2.4. Earth–Atmosphere Energy Balance Distribution of Energy by Latitude Inputs & Outputs 2.5. Energy Balance at Earth’s Surface Patterns of Insolation & Temperature Simplified Surface Energy Balance 2.6. Temperature Concepts & Measurement Temperature Scales Measuring Temperature 2.7. Principal Temperature Controls Latitude Altitude & Elevation Cloud Cover Land–Water Heating Differences Ocean Currents & Sea-Surface Temperatures 2.8. The Urban Environment Urban Heat Islands Mitigating UHI Effects 2.9. Earth’s Temperature Patterns January and July Temperatures Annual Temperature Ranges 2.10. Wind Chill, the Heat Index, & Heat Waves Wind Chill The Heat Index Heat Waves & Climate Change The Human Denominator 2: Energy Balance & Global Temperatures Chapter 2: Review GeoLab2: Global Temperature Patterns: Some Like It Hot 3. Atmospheric & Oceanic Circulations 3.1. Wind Essentials Air Pressure & Its Measurement Wind 3.2. Driving Forces within the Atmosphere Gravitational Force Pressure-Gradient Force Coriolis Force Friction Force The Effects of Forces on Winds 3.3. Global Patterns of Pressure & Motion Primary High-Pressure & Low-Pressure Areas ITCZ: Warm & Rainy Subtropical High-Pressure Cells: Hot & Dry Subpolar Low-Pressure Cells along the Polar Front: Cool & Moist 3.4. Upper Atmospheric Circulation Pressure in the Upper Atmosphere Rossby Waves Jet Streams 3.5. Local & Regional Winds Local Winds Monsoon Winds 3.6. Ocean Currents Surface Currents Thermohaline Circulation—Deep Currents 3.7. Natural Oscillations in Global Circulation El Niño–Southern Oscillation The Human Denominator 3: Global Circulation Chapter 3: Review GeoLab3: El Niño or La Niña? 4. Atmospheric Water & Weather 4.1. Water’s Unique Properties Heat Properties & Phase Changes of Water Water Phase Changes in the Atmosphere 4.2. Humidity—Water Vapor in the Atmosphere Relative Humidity Expressions of Humidity 4.3. Atmospheric Stability Adiabatic Processes Stable & Unstable Atmospheric Conditions 4.4. Clouds & Fog Cloud Types & Identification Fog Precipitation 4.5. Air Masses Classifying Air Masses Air Mass Modification 4.6. Processes That Lift Air Convergent Lifting Convectional Lifting Orographic Lifting Frontal Lifting: Cold & Warm Fronts 4.7. Midlatitude Cyclones Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone 4.8. Weather Forecasting Doppler Radar Weather Maps & Forecasting 4.9. Thunderstorms Formation & Characteristics of Thunderstorms Derechos 4.10. Tornadoes How a Tornado Forms Tornado Measurement & Frequency 4.11. Tropical Cyclones Characteristics of Tropical Cyclones Prediction & the Future The Human Denominator 4: Weather Chapter 4: Review GeoLab4: Stormy Weather: How do you track a midlatitude cyclone on a weather map? 5. Water Resources 5.1. Water on Earth Origin & Distribution Worldwide Equilibrium The Hydrologic Cycle 5.2. The Soil–Water Budget Concept Actual & Potential Evapotranspiration Where does Water exist on Earth? Applying Water Budget Concepts 5.3. Surface Water & Groundwater Resources Surface Water Resources Groundwater Resources 5.4. Overuse of Groundwater – High Plains Aquifer Groundwater Mining High Plains Aquifer Overdraft 5.5. Our Water Supply Water Supply in the United States 5.6a. Water Scarcity: The Colorado River System Out of Balance Colorado River: Sharing a Scarce Resource What is the Future of Water Resources in the United States? 5.6b. Water Scarcity: The New Normal? Sierra Snowpack: California’s Dwindling Treasure Water Scarcity: A Global Challenge The Human Denominator 5: Water Use Chapter 5: Review GeoLab5: Good to the Last Drop: How do Planners use the Water Budget Concept to meet Community Needs? 6. Global Climate Systems 6.1. Components of Earth’s Climate System Components That Interact to Produce Climate Köppen Climate Classification System How are Climates Classified? 6.2. Climate Classification System 6.3. Tropical Climates (Tropical Latitudes) Tropical Rain Forest Climates Tropical Monsoon Climates Tropical Savanna Climates 6.4. Mesothermal Climates (Midlatitudes, Mild Winters) Humid Subtropical Climates Marine West Coast Climates Mediterranean Dry-Summer Climates 6.5. Microthermal Climates (Midlatitudes & High Latitudes, Cold Winters) Humid Continental Hot-Summer Climates Humid Continental Mild-Summer Climates Subarctic Climates 6.6. Polar & Highland Climates Tundra Climates Ice Cap & Ice Sheet Climates Polar Marine Climates 6.7. Dry Climates (Permanent Moisture Deficits) Tropical, Subtropical Hot Desert Climates Midlatitude Cold Desert Climates Tropical, Subtropical Hot Steppe Climates Midlatitude Cold Steppe Climates The Human Denominator 6: Climate Regions Chapter 6: Review GeoLab6: Industrial Location: Which Location is Optimum? 7. Climate Change 7.1. Deciphering Past Climates Methods for Long-Term Climate Reconstruction 7.2. Climates of Earth’s Past 70 mya: Rapid Warming, Followed by Gradual Cooling 5 mya: Fluctuating Temperatures 7.3. Climates of the Last 20,000 Years Methods for Short-Term Climate Reconstruction Short-Term Climate Trends 7.4. Mechanisms of Natural Climate Change Solar Variability Earth’s Orbital Cycles Continental Position & Topography Atmospheric Gases & Aerosols 7.5. Climate Feedbacks & the Carbon Budget The Ice–Albedo Feedback Water Vapor Feedback Earth’s Carbon Budget 7.6. Evidence for Present Climate Change Rising Temperatures Melting Ice Rising Sea Levels Increased Atmospheric Water Vapor Extreme Events 7.7. Causes of Present Climate Change Contributions of Greenhouse Gases Factors that Affect Earth’s Energy Balance 7.8. Climate Models & Forecasts Radiative Forcing Scenarios Future Temperature Scenarios Sea-Level Projections Possible Climate Futures 7.9. Debating Climate Change Weighing the Evidence Skepticism Taking a Position on Climate Change 7.10. Addressing Climate Change Climate Change Action: Global, National, & Local Climate Change Action: What Can You Do? The Human Denominator 7: Taking Action on Climate Change Chapter 7: Review GeoLab7: Getting to the Core: Reconstructing Past Climates 8. Tectonics, Earthquakes, & Volcanism 8.1. The Vast Span of Geologic Time Eons, Eras, Periods, & Epochs Absolute Time & Relative Time The Principle of Uniformitarianism 8.2. Earth History & Interior Earth’s Formation Earth’s Core & Magnetism Earth’s Mantle Earth’s Lithosphere & Crust 8.3. The Rock Cycle Subcycles within the Geologic Cycle Minerals, Rocks, & the Rock Cycle Igneous Processes Sedimentary Processes Metamorphic Processes 8.4. Plate Tectonics Wegener’s Hypothesis of Continental Drift The Theory of Plate Tectonics 8.5. Seafloor Spreading & Subduction Zones Seafloor Spreading Evidence for Seafloor Spreading: Geomagnetism Subduction Zones 8.6. Plate Boundaries Mechanisms of Plate Motion Interactions at Plate Boundaries Earthquake & Volcanic Activity Related to Plate Boundaries Hot Spots 8.7. Deformation, Folding, & Faulting How Stress Affects Rock: Deformation Folding & Broad Warping Faulting 8.8. Earthquakes Before, During, & After an Earthquake Earthquake Intensity & Magnitude Earthquake Prediction Earthquake Hazards & Safety 8.9. Volcanoes Distribution of Volcanic Activity Types of Volcanic Activity Volcanic Features Volcano Hazards & Monitoring 8.10. Mountain Building Types of Orogenesis The Human Denominator 8: Earth Materials & Plate Tectonics Chapter 8: Review GeoLab8: Life on the Edge: How do Plate Boundaries put Humans at Risk? 9. Weathering, Karst Landscapes, & Mass Movement 9.1. Weathering & Landforms Stable & Unstable Slopes Weathering Processes 9.2. Physical Weathering Frost Action Salt-Crystal Growth Pressure-Release Jointing 9.3. Chemical Weathering Hydration & Hydrolysis Oxidation Carbonation 9.4. Karst Topography Formation of Karst Features of Karst Landscapes 9.5. Mass Movement The Role of Slopes Mechanisms that Trigger Mass Movements 9.6. Types of Mass Movements Falls & Avalanches Landslides Flows Creep Human-Induced Mass Movements The Human Denominator 9: Weathering, Karst, & Hillslopes Chapter 9: Review GeoLab9: Seasonal Changes: What is the Role of Latitude in Changing Insolation & day Length? 10. River Systems & Landforms 10.1. Streams & Drainage Basins Stream Formation Drainage Basins 10.2. Drainage Patterns Classifying Drainage Patterns 10.3. Stream Dynamics Stream Gradient Base Level Stream Discharge Stream Types 10.4. Fluvial Processes Stream Erosion How Streams Transport Sediment Deposition of Sediment 10.5. Changes in Stream Channels Features Formed by Stream Erosion Stream Nickpoints 10.6. Stream Deposition Features of Floodplains Other Depositional Features 10.7. Floodplains & Human Settlement Flood Hazards Rating Floodplain Risk The Human Denominator 10: Rivers, Floodplains, & Deltas Chapter 10: Review GeoLab10: Risky Waters: Determining Flood Risk 11. Coastal Systems & Wind Processes 11.1. Global Oceans & Seas Oceans & Seas The Chemistry of Seawater Ocean Layers Pollution & Oil Spills 11.2. Coastal Environments Coastal System Components The Coastal Environment & Sea Level 11.3. Coastal System Actions Tides Waves 11.4. Coastal Erosion & Deposition Erosional Coastlines Depositional Coastlines 11.5. Wind Erosion Eolian Erosion 11.6. Wind Transportation & Deposition Eolian Transportation Eolian Deposition 11.7. Living Coastal Environments Corals Coral Reefs Coastal Wetlands 11.8. Coastal Hazards & Human Impacts Sea Level Rise Storm Surges & Erosion Beach Protection The Human Denominator 11: Oceans, Coasts, & Dunes Chapter 11: Review GeoLab11: Trash Talk: Can We Predict the Pathway & Decomposition of Trash in the Great North Pacific Garbage Patch? 12. Glacial & Periglacial Landscapes 12.1. Glacial Processes—Ice Formation & Mass Balance Glacial Formation Alpine Glaciers Continental Glaciers 12.2. Glacial Mass Balance & Movement Glacial Mass Balance Glacial Movement 12.3. Alpine Glacial Erosion & Landforms How Glaciers Erode & Transport Sediment Glacial Landforms 12.4. Glacial Deposition Glacial Drift Landforms Deposited by Glaciers 12.5. Periglacial Landscapes The Geography of Permafrost Periglacial Processes 12.6. The Pleistocene Epoch 12.7. Deciphering Past Climates Medieval Warm Period & Little Ice Age Mechanisms of Climate Fluctuation 12.8. Shrinking Glaciers on a Warming Planet Polar Environments Recent Polar Region Changes The Human Denominator 12: The Cryosphere Chapter 12: Review GeoLab12: Big Relief: Using Topographic Maps to Determine Elevation Profiles 13. Ecosystems & Soils 13.1. Energy Flows & Nutrient Cycles Ecosystem Structure & Function What are the Living & Nonliving Components of Ecosystems? Energy in Ecosystems Net Primary Productivity 13.2. Biogeochemical Cycles Oxygen & Carbon Cycles Nitrogen Cycle 13.3. Soil Development & Soil Profiles Natural Soil-Formation Factors Human Impacts on Soils Soil Horizons 13.4. Soil Characteristics Physical Properties Chemical Properties 13.5. Energy Pathways Trophic Relationships Energy Pyramids Biological Amplification 13.6. Communities: Habitat, Adaptation, & Niche Evolution & Adaptation The Niche Concept 13.7. Species Interactions & Distributions Species Interactions Abiotic Influences on Distribution Limiting Factors Affecting Distribution 13.8. Ecosystem Disturbance & Succession Wildfire & Fire Ecology Terrestrial Succession Aquatic Succession 13.9. Ecosystem Stability & Biodiversity Ecosystem Stability & Resilience Biodiversity on the Decline The Human Denominator 13: Soils & Land Use Chapter 13: Review GeoLab13: Net Primary Productivity 14. Terrestrial Biomes 14.1. Biogeographic Divisions Biogeographic Realms Biomes Ecotones 14.2. Conservation Biogeography Invasive Species Island Biogeography for Species Preservation 14.3. Soils: Soil Classification Soil Taxonomy 14.4. Soils: Tropical, Arid, Grassland, & Forest Soils Soil Orders of the Soil Taxonomy 14.5. Soils: Weathered Forest Soils & Young Soils 14.6. Soils: Cold, Volcanic & Organic Matter Soils 14.7. Earth’s Terrestrial Biomes: Tropics Tropical Rain Forest Tropical Savanna 14.8. Earth’s Terrestrial Biomes: Midlatitudes Midlatitude Broadleaf & Mixed Forest Boreal & Montane Forest Temperate Rain Forest Mediterranean Shrubland Midlatitude Grassland Deserts Earth’s Terrestrial Biomes: Tundra and Anthropogenic Biomes Arctic & Alpine Tundra Anthropogenic Biomes The Human Denominator 14: Anthropogenic Biomes Chapter 14: Review GeoLab14: Global Biomes Appendix: Maps in This Text and Topgraphic Maps Glossary Credits Index Inside Back Cover