Food Security and Safety Volume 2: African Perspectives

Description

Sustainable food production is a global challenge with respect to climate change and an ever-increasing world population. Conventional crop production using agrochemicals presents human health and environmental challenges. Rising concerns about environmental sustainability have increased attention toward improved, efficient, and sustainable means of crop production. Various strategies are employed in enhancing crop production to adapt and mitigate climate change and ensure food security. The future of food production relies on improving productivity without compromising long-term productivity and environmental sustainability. Feeding the ever-increasing world population would require concerted efforts by all stakeholders to combat the impact of climate change and numerous ecological challenges facing food production. Hence, innovative technologies and methods are indispensable in mitigating the effects on food security. The book looks at the current challenges and solutions, from an African perspective, regarding food safety and health management, food security and nutrition, climate change and sustainable food production, and forest resources and food security. The target audience is scientists, graduate students, researchers, academicians, and professionals in food production for sustainable development and ecosystem management. This book will also be helpful to policymakers and specialists in framing future feasible agro-ecosystem policies. Foreword Preface About the Book Contents About the Editors Contributors List of Abbreviations List of Figures List of Tables Part I: Food Safety and Human Health Chapter 1: The Potential of Resistant Starch Type 1 for Nutritional Food Security 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The Importance of Carbohydrate Nutrition for Sustenance 1.2.1 Should Carbohydrates Be Eliminated from Diets? 1.3 The Importance of Resistant Starches and Why Resistant Starch Type 1 (RS1) Should Be Protected in Foods 1.3.1 Resistant Starch Type 1 in Foods 1.3.2 Climate Change, Food Security and Resistant Starch Type 1 1.3.3 The Economic Implications of Having RS1 Foods 1.4 Conclusion References Chapter 2: Evaluation of Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Some Fish Species from the Far North, Cameroon Rice Farms’ Channels of Pouss 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Material and Methods 2.2.1 Description of the Study Site 2.2.2 Sampling Method 2.2.3 Measurements of Environmental Parameters 2.2.4 Treatment of Fish Samples 2.2.4.1 Dissection of Fish 2.2.4.2 Production of Ashes and Extraction Liquid 2.2.5 Measurement of Heavy Metal Concentrations 2.2.6 Evaluation of Health Risks 2.3 Results and Discussion 2.3.1 Environmental Parameters 2.3.2 Heavy Metals in Water 2.3.3 Metal Levels in Fish Organs 2.3.4 Bioconcentration Factors 2.3.5 Human Health Risk Assessment 2.4 Conclusion References Chapter 3: Evaluation of the Levels of Nine Heavy Metals in Five Crops Using AAS and XRF 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Research Problem 3.1.2 Study Area 3.2 Materials and Methods 3.2.1 Materials and Farmlands 3.2.2 Sample Collection and Planting 3.2.3 Monitoring of Farms and Crops 3.2.4 Harvesting 3.2.5 Sample Preparation 3.2.6 Sample Digestion 3.3 Results and Discussion 3.4 Conclusions References Chapter 4: The Role of Food in the Health Management of Geriatrics 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Food Production Statistics in Africa 4.2.1 The Increase in Age of Africa’s Population 4.3 Epidemiology of Diseases Affecting the Ageing Population 4.4 Role of Dietary Fibre and Omega 3 Fatty Acid on the Health Management of Geriatrics 4.4.1 Dietary Fibre 4.4.2 Omega 3 Fatty Acids 4.5 Role of Diet in the Ageing Population’s Health Management 4.5.1 Obesity 4.5.2 Diabetes Mellitus 4.5.3 Cardiovascular Disease 4.5.4 Diet and Cancer 4.5.4.1 Causes of Cancer Body Fatness Lack of Physical Activity 4.5.4.2 Diet’s Role in the Management of Cancer Among the Ageing Population 4.5.5 Bone Health 4.5.6 Oral Health 4.5.6.1 Tooth Loss 4.5.6.2 Denture-Related Conditions 4.5.6.3 Coronal Dental Caries and Root Surface Caries 4.5.6.4 Periodontal Disease 4.5.6.5 Xerostomia 4.5.6.6 Oral Precancer and Oral Cancer 4.5.7 Mental Health 4.6 Conclusion References Chapter 5: Genetically Modified Crops in Africa: Perspectives and Safety Concerns 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Development of GM Crops: Evolution Techniques 5.2.1 Traditional/Conventional Methods 5.2.2 Modern Biotechnology Methods 5.2.2.1 Tissue Culture 5.2.2.2 Marker-Assisted Selection/Molecular Breeding 5.2.2.3 Genetic Engineering 5.2.3 Genetic Engineering Techniques 5.3 Benefits of GM Crops 5.3.1 Improved Nutrition 5.3.2 Pest Resistance 5.3.3 Herbicide Tolerance 5.4 Higher Productivity 5.5 Phytoremediation and Environmental Monitoring 5.6 Challenges and Concern of Genetically Modified Crops 5.6.1 Challenges 5.6.2 Concerns 5.6.2.1 Health Risks Food Allergenicity DNA/Gene Transfer 5.6.2.2 Environmental Risks Plant- and Non-target Organism Pesticide Toxicity Threat to Biodiversity 5.7 Safety Assessment of GM Crops 5.8 Molecular Characterization of GM Crops 5.8.1 Methods Used for Molecular Characterization 5.8.2 Methods Used for Tracking GM Crops 5.8.2.1 Food Safety Assessment 5.8.2.2 Allergenicity 5.8.2.3 Toxicity 5.8.3 Compositional Analysis 5.8.4 Environmental Studies 5.9 Current Status of GM Crops in Africa 5.9.1 Status of GM Crops in South Africa 5.9.2 Status of GM Crops in Nigeria 5.9.3 Status of GM Crops in Malawi 5.9.4 Status of GM Crops in Kenya 5.10 Conclusion 5.11 Recommendations References Chapter 6: Indigenous Leafy Vegetables and Health Management in South-Western Nigeria: A Review Based on Osun State 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Methodology 6.2.1 Quantitative Analysis 6.3 Result and Discussion 6.3.1 Ethnobotanical Field Studies 6.3.2 Medicinal Use Review 6.3.2.1 Respiratory Problems 6.3.2.2 Reproductive Problems 6.3.2.3 Urinary Tract Related Problems 6.3.2.4 Circulatory-Related Problems 6.3.3 Degenerative Diseases/Nervous System Disorders 6.3.4 Digestive Ailments 6.3.5 Wound Healing, Skin Inflammations, and Other Ailments 6.4 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Combined Application of Subsurface Drainage and Fertilization, a Method to Reduce the Effects of Iron and Sulfide Toxicities in Irrigated Rice Fields in Burkina Faso 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Iron and Sulfide Toxicities in Rice Fields 7.3 Microorganisms Implication in the Appearance of Iron and Sulfide Toxicities in Rice Fields 7.3.1 Iron-Reducing Bacteria Ecology in Rice Paddy Soils 7.3.2 Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria in Rice Paddy Soils 7.4 Symptoms of Rice Iron and Sulfide Toxicities 7.4.1 Symptoms of Rice Iron Toxicity 7.4.2 Sulfide Toxicity for Rice Plant 7.4.3 Mechanisms of Iron and Sulfide Toxicities Induction in the Rice Plant 7.5 Usual Methods to Reduce Iron and Sulfide Toxicities in Rice Fields 7.5.1 Chemical Methods to Reduce Sulfide Toxicities in Rice Fields 7.5.2 Biological Methods to Reduce SRB and IRB Impact in Rice Fields 7.5.3 Selection of Tolerant and/or Resistant Rice Varieties 7.5.4 Application of Fertilization to Reduce Iron and Sulfide Toxicities in Rice Fields 7.5.5 Water Management Methods Used to Control Iron and Sulfide Toxicities 7.5.6 Cultural Practices to Reduce Iron and Sulfide Toxicities in Rice Fields 7.6 Combined Application of Subsurface Drainage, Fertilization, and Rice Varieties to Reduce Iron and Sulfide Toxicities in Rice Fields References Chapter 8: Is Food Medicine? Lessons From a Household Survey on Plants Used to Manage Anaemia in Kilifi County, Kenya 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Methodology 8.2.1 Study Area 8.2.2 Household Survey and Data Collection 8.2.3 Selection of Plant Species for Quantification of Iron Content 8.2.3.1 Preparation of Plant Samples to Determine the Mineral Content 8.2.3.2 Determination of Iron Content in the Plant Samples 8.2.3.3 Determination of Vitamin C Content 8.2.4 Data Analysis 8.2.5 Ethical Considerations 8.3 Results 8.3.1 Occurrence of Anaemia in the Household 8.3.2 Frequently Used Plant Species for the Management of Anaemia 8.3.3 Perceived Efficacy, Health Outcome and Respective Iron and Vitamin C Content 8.3.4 Availability and Sources of the Nutri/Medicinal Plants 8.4 Discussion 8.4.1 Frequently Used Plant Species for the Management of Anaemia 8.4.2 Perceived Efficacy, Health Outcome and Respective Role of Iron and Vitamin C Content 8.4.3 In Vitro/In Vivo Evidence for Anti-anaemia Properties 8.4.4 Availability of Anti-anaemic Functional Foods 8.4.5 Clinical Evidence for Anti-anaemic Properties and Cytotoxicity Considerations of the Plants Named by the Respondents 8.4.6 Conclusions and Recommendations References Chapter 9: Plantain Bioactives: An Underutilised Food Resource in Africa 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Resistant Starch and Glycaemic Index (GI) of Plantain 9.2.1 Resistant Starch and Other Starch Fractions in Plantain 9.2.2 Glycaemic Index of Plantains 9.3 Polyphenols in Plantain 9.3.1 Nutraceutical Properties of Plantain Polyphenols 9.4 Beta Carotene and Vitamin A in Plantain 9.4.1 Plantain-Rich Carotenoid: A Prospective Food Source for Relieving Vitamin A Deficiency 9.5 The Need to Develop Functional Foods from Plantain 9.5.1 Vital Functional Ingredients in Plantain 9.5.1.1 Antioxidant Compounds in Plantain 9.5.1.2 Carbohydrates 9.5.1.3 Vitamins 9.5.1.4 Minerals 9.6 Wastage Utilisation from Plantain 9.6.1 Plantain Peel Antioxidant Dietary Fibre for Developing Functional Cookies 9.6.2 Bioethanol Production from Waste Ripe Plantain and Peels Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae 9.6.3 Exploitation of Plantain Waste in Wastewater Treatment 9.6.4 Plantain/Banana Waste-Derived Adsorbents Against Environmental Pollutants 9.7 Conclusion References Part II: Food Security and Nutrition Chapter 10: New Perspectives in the Utilization of African Leafy Vegetables 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Commonly Consumed Leafy Vegetables in Nigeria 10.3 Some Nutrients Composition of Leafy Vegetables 10.3.1 Micronutrients in Leafy Vegetables 10.3.2 Macronutrients in Leafy Vegetables 10.4 Utilization Potentials of Leafy Vegetables in the Development of a New Class of Food 10.4.1 The Use as Part or Major Soup Ingredients 10.4.2 The Leafy Vegetable Slurry and Powders 10.4.3 Phenolic Compounds in Leafy Vegetables 10.4.3.1 Preparation of Phenolic Compound from Leafy Vegetables 10.4.4 Protein and Peptides in Leafy Vegetables 10.5 Isolation of Proteins and Preparation of Hydrolysates from Leafy Vegetables 10.5.1 Application of Peptides as Functional Ingredient in Fruit Juice 10.6 Challenges in the Use of Leafy Vegetables or Their By-Products 10.7 Recommendation on the Use of Leafy Vegetables and Their By-Products 10.8 Conclusion References Chapter 11: The Uptake of Farming Technological Innovations for Food Security in Kejom Ketinguh in the North-West Region of Cameroon: A Contribution to Anthropology of Food Production 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Brief History and Location of Study Area 11.2.1 Brief History 11.2.2 Location 11.3 The Perception of Farming Technological Innovations 11.4 The Farm 11.5 Traditional Farming Techniques 11.5.1 Slash and Burn (kenkoh) 11.5.2 Ankara (nfuih) 11.5.3 Ridging Along the Slopes (ngwan-medieuh) 11.6 Types of Farming Technological Innovations 11.6.1 Draught Oxen Farming Systems 11.6.2 Genetically Modified Seedlings 11.6.3 Integrated Organic Farming 11.6.4 Sustainable Farming Practices 11.6.5 Improved Animal Species and Techniques of Rearing 11.6.6 Crop Rotation 11.6.7 Paddocking 11.6.8 Slash and Mulch 11.6.9 Agro-forestry 11.7 Integrating Cultural Values and Practices with Farming Technological Innovations 11.7.1 Compatibility of Farming Technological Innovation with Cultural Values and Practices 11.7.2 The Advantage of Farming Innovations to the People 11.7.3 Simple to Use 11.7.4 Farming Technological Innovations Should Be Bottom-Up 11.7.5 Farming Innovations Should Be Persistent 11.7.6 Build a Network of Farmers Group 11.7.7 Observable Results 11.8 Conclusion References Chapter 12: Food and Nutrition Insecurity in Africa: The Primary Drivers and Sustainable Strategies to Improve the Current Status 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Overview of Food Security in Africa 12.3 Primary Drivers of Food Insecurity in Africa 12.3.1 Insecurity 12.3.2 The Impact of Insecurity on Displacement 12.3.3 The Impact of Insecurity on Food Price 12.3.4 Climate Change 12.3.5 Migratory Pest 12.4 Effect of COVID-19 on Food Security in Africa 12.5 Effect of Food Insecurity on Children 12.6 Sustainable Strategies for Improving Food and Nutrition Security in Africa 12.7 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS): Untapped Potential for Enhancing Food and Nutrition Securities in Sub-Saharan Africa 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Marker-Assisted Selection 13.2.1 What It Is and Its Usefulness in Crop Improvement 13.2.2 Methods in MAS 13.3 Current Breeding Methods in Africa 13.3.1 Pure-Line Selection 13.3.2 Pedigree Method 13.3.3 Polyploidy Method 13.3.4 Mutation Breeding 13.4 Modern Crop Breeding Techniques 13.4.1 Micro Propagation 13.4.2 Genetic Engineering 13.4.3 Gene Editing 13.4.4 Speed Breeding Method 13.5 Opportunities of MAS in Sub-Saharan Africa 13.6 Biosafety Concerns in MAS Techniques 13.7 Data Management and Analysis 13.8 Conclusion References Chapter 14: Harnessing the Opportunities for Sustainable Small-Scale Rural Farming Towards Attaining Food Security in Southern Africa 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Methodology 14.2.1 Phase One: Exploring and Information Search 14.2.2 Phase Two: Information Interpretation 14.2.3 Phase Three: Communication Segment 14.3 Opportunities for Small-Scale Agriculture 14.3.1 Human Development (Employment Creation and Income Generation) 14.3.2 Food Production 14.3.3 Increasing Demand for Agricultural Products 14.3.4 Agriculture Investments and Technology Innovations 14.4 Challenges Faced by Small-Scale Farmers 14.5 Agriculture Development Solutions 14.5.1 Climate Change Solutions 14.5.2 Infrastructure Investments 14.5.3 Information and Communication Technology Investments 14.5.4 Research and Innovation 14.5.5 Investing in Agriculture Training 14.5.6 Practical and Policy Implications 14.5.7 Science Communication 14.6 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Improving Food Security in Africa Through Sustainable Utilization of Selected Climate Smart Emerging Crops: A Case of Botswana and Namibia 15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 Nutritional and Medicinal Properties of Selected Climate Smart Emerging Crops 15.1.2 Economic Strategy 15.2 Exploring Potential of Domestication and Cultivation 15.2.1 Intellectual Property Management for Knowledge and Protocols 15.2.2 Forms of Protection That Can Be Utilized 15.2.2.1 Utilization of Labelling and Geographical Indications 15.2.3 Protection Through Contract Law 15.2.3.1 Knowledge Registries and Databases 15.3 Strengthening Science–Policy Interface in Research and Development 15.3.1 Science–Policy Interface 15.3.2 Science–Policy Interactions Recommendations 15.3.2.1 Promote Domestication, Production, Commercialization and Conservation of Climate Smart Emerging Crops as Expressed in NDP II, Vision 2036 and UN Agenda 2030 15.3.2.2 Establish Value Chain for Climate Smart Emerging Crops in Consultation with Knowledge Holders and Indigenous Users as They Have Indigenous Belief Systems on the Extraction and Utilization of the Resources 15.3.2.3 Promote Climate Smart Emerging Crops Community Enterprises Championed by Women and Youth 15.3.2.4 Establish a Robust and Cost-Effective Inventory on Climate Smart Emerging Crops to Provide Information on Distribution, Abundance and Potential Risks or Threats 15.3.2.5 Support Interdisciplinary Research Teams and Promote Multi-Stakeholder Processes to Enhance the Use of Climate Smart Emerging Crops 15.3.2.6 Fund Research and Development for Domestication and Commercialization of Climate Smart Emerging Crops for Diversifying Crops Base 15.3.2.7 Manage Risks in Incorporating Climate Smart Emerging Crops Into the Cropping System in Botswana 15.3.2.8 Strengthen the Capacity of Individuals and Institutions in Research, Education and Value Adding of Climate Smart Emerging Crops 15.4 Plant Description, Uses and Chemical Properties of Selected Climate Smart Emerging Crops and Fungi 15.4.1 Morama Bean (Tylosema esculentum (Burch.) A.Schreib.) 15.4.2 Mungongo (Schinziophyton rautanenii (Schinz) Radcl.-Sm. 15.4.3 Morula (Sclerocarya birrea Subsp. Caffra (Sond.) Kokwaro) 15.4.4 Mosukujane (Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng) 15.4.5 Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) 15.4.6 Kgengwe (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai) 15.4.7 Mahupu (Kalaharituber pfeilii Trappe) 15.5 Conclusion References Chapter 16: Essentials of Nutraceuticals and Probiotics 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Nutraceuticals 16.2.1 Classification of Nutraceuticals 16.2.2 Nontraditional Nutraceuticals 16.3 Health Benefits of Nutraceuticals 16.4 Role of Nutraceuticals in Sustaining Human Health (Table 16.1) 16.5 Adverse Effects of Nutraceuticals 16.6 Probiotics 16.7 Types of Probiotic Foods 16.8 The Benefits of Probiotics to Human Health 16.9 Effect of Probiotics in Some Disease Conditions 16.9.1 Skin Infections 16.9.2 Vaginal Infections 16.9.3 Gastrointestinal Infections 16.10 Probiotics’ Side Effects 16.11 Prebiotics and Synbiotics 16.12 Conclusion References Chapter 17: Phenotypic Characterisation of Nine Accessions of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench.) 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Materials and Methods 17.3 Results 17.4 Discussion 17.5 Conclusion and Recommendation References Chapter 18: Long-Term Restorative Farming Effects on Soil Biological Properties for Carbon Stock, Soil Quality, and Yield in a Nigerian Northern Guinea Savanna Alfisols 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Materials and Methods 18.2.1 Description of the Study Area, Weather, and Soil Condition 18.2.2 Treatments, Soil Sampling, and Analytical Procedures 18.2.3 Soil Sampling and Analytical Procedures 18.2.4 Statistical Analysis 18.3 Results and Discussion 18.3.1 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of the Study Soil 18.3.2 Effect of Cropping Systems on Soil Bulk Density After 10 Years of Continuous Cropping 18.3.3 Effect of Cropping Systems on Soil Carbon Stock After 10 Years of Continuous Cropping 18.3.4 Effect of Cropping Systems on Soil pH After 10 Years of Continuous Cropping 18.3.5 Effect of Cropping Systems on Soil Organic Carbon (OC), Total Nitrogen (TN), and Available Phosphorus (Avail.P) After 10 Years of Continuous Cropping 18.3.6 Effect of Cropping Systems on Effective Cation Exchange Capacity (ECEC) After 10 Years of Continuous Cropping 18.3.7 Effect of Cropping Systems on Soil Microbial Carbon (SMBC), Nitrogen (SMBN), and Phosphorus (SMBP) After 10 Years of Continuous Cropping 18.3.8 Effect of Cropping Systems on Soil Microbial Activity After 10 Years of Continuous Cropping 18.3.9 Effect of Cropping Systems on Soil Quality After 10 Years of Continuous Cropping 18.3.10 Effect of Cropping Systems on Maize Grain and Stover Yields After 10 Years of Continuous Cropping 18.4 Conclusion References Part III: Climate Change and Sustainable Food Production Chapter 19: Impact of Climate Change on Food Security for Health Management and Its Adaptation Strategies for Sustainability among Households in South-East Nigeria 19.1 Introduction 19.1.1 Background of the Study 19.1.2 Design of the Study 19.1.2.1 Population of the Study 19.1.2.2 Sample and Sampling Technique 19.2 Method of Data Analysis 19.3 Results 19.4 Discussion/Conclusion Appendix: Population Sample for Distribution of the Questionnaire References Chapter 20: Climate Change, Growth in Agriculture Value Added, Food Availability and Economic Growth Nexus in the Gambia: A Granger Causality and ARDL Modeling Approach 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Theoretical Model 20.3 Methodology 20.3.1 Economic Model 20.3.2 Econometric Model 20.3.3 Empirical Model 20.3.4 Unit Root and Stationarity Tests 20.3.5 ARDL Model 20.3.6 Error Correction Model 20.3.6.1 VECM (Vector Error Correlation Model) Model 20.4 Econometric Results 20.4.1 ARDL Analysis 20.4.2 Vector Autoregressive (VAR) Results 20.4.3 Granger Causality Test 20.4.4 Econometric Tests 20.4.5 Jarque-Bera Normality Test 20.4.6 Heteroskedasticity Tests 20.4.6.1 White Test Option 1: No Cross Terms Option 2: Include Cross Terms 20.5 Discussion 20.5.1 Limitations of the Study 20.6 Conclusion and Policy Implications and Areas for Future Research Appendix (Figs. 20.10, 20.11, 20.12, 20.13, and 20.14) References Part IV: Animal Production for Improved Food Security Chapter 21: Adoption of Genomics and Breeding Strategies to Improve Goat Productivity in Southern Africa 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Feed and Feed Utilisation 21.3 Genetic Improvement Programmes 21.4 Genomics 21.5 Goat Value Chain 21.6 Outlook for the Future 21.6.1 SWOT Analysis 21.6.2 Scientific Research 21.7 Conclusions References Index