Thermal Engineering

Description

Brand New Cover About Pearson Title page Copyright Dedication Brief Contents Contents Preface About the Authors Chapter 1: Fuels and Combustion 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Classification of Fuels 1.3 Solid Fuels 1.3.1 Primary Fuels 1.3.2 Secondary Fuels 1.3.3 Desirable Properties of Coal 1.3.4 Ranking of Coal 1.3.5 Grading of Coal 1.4 Liquid Fuels 1.4.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Liquid Fuels Over Solid Fuels 1.4.2 Calorific Value of Liquid Fuels 1.4.3 Desirable Properties of Liquid Fuels 1.5 Gaseous Fuels 1.5.1 Calorific Value of Gaseous Fuels 1.5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gaseous Fuels 1.5.3 Important Properties of Gaseous Fuels 1.6 Liquefied Gases 1.6.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas 1.6.2 Liquefied or Compressed Natural Gas 1.7 Biofuels 1.8 Analysis of Fuels 1.8.1 Proximate Analysis 1.8.2 Ultimate Analysis 1.9 Calorific Value of Fuels 1.10 Combustion of Fuels 1.11 Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuel 1.12 Minimum Air Required for Complete Combustion of Solid/liquid Fuels 1.13 Conversion of Volumetric Analysis To Mass (or Gravimetric) Analysis And Vice-versa 1.14 Determination of Air Supplied 1.14.1 Percentage of Carbon by Mass in Fuel and Volumetric Analysis is Known 1.14.2 Excess Air Supplied 1.15 Determination of Percentage of Carbon in Fuel Burning to Co and Co2 1.16 Determination of Minimum Quantity of Air Required for Complete Combustion of Gaseous Fuel 1.17 Determination of Excess Air Supplied for Gaseous Fuel 1.18 Flue Gas Analysis 1.18.1 Orsat Apparatus Construction 1.19 Bomb Calorimeter 1.19.1 Construction 1.19.2 Working 1.19.3 Cooling Correction 1.20 Boys Gas Calorimeter 1.20.1 Construction 1.20.2 Working Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 2: Properties of Steam 2.1 Pure Substance 2.2 Constant Pressure Formation Of Steam 2.3 Properties of Steam 2.4 Steam Tables 2.5 Temperature−entropy Diagram for Water and Steam 2.6 Enthalpy−entropy or Mollier Diagram of Steam 2.7 Various Processes for Steam 2.7.1 Constant Volume Process 2.7.2 Constant Pressure Process 2.7.3 Isothermal Process 2.7.4 Hyperbolic Process 2.7.5 Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic Process 2.7.6 Polytropic Process 2.7.7 Throttling Process 2.8 Determination of Dryness Fraction of Steam 2.8.1 Barrel Calorimeter 2.8.2 Separating Calorimeter 2.8.3 Throttling Calorimeter 2.8.4 Combined Separating and Throttling Calorimeter Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 3: Steam Generators 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Classification of Steam Generators 3.3 Comparison of Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers 3.4 Requirements of a Good Boiler 3.5 Factors Affecting Boiler Selection 3.6 Description of Boilers 3.6.1 Fire Tube Boilers 3.6.2 Water Tube Boilers 3.7 High Pressure Boilers 3.7.1 Boiler Circulation 3.7.2 Advantages of Forced Circulation Boilers 3.7.3 LaMont Boiler 3.7.4 Benson Boiler 3.7.5 Loeffler Boiler 3.7.6 Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler 3.7.7 Velox Boiler 3.7.8 Once-through Boiler 3.8 Circulation 3.9 Steam Drum 3.9.1 Mechanism of Separation of Moisture in Drum 3.10 Fluidised Bed Boiler 3.10.1 Bubbling Fluidised Bed Boiler (BFBB) 3.10.2 Advantages of BFBB 3.11 Boiler Mountings 3.11.1 Water Level Indicator 3.11.2 Pressure Gauge 3.11.3 Steam Stop Valve 3.11.4 Feed Check Valve 3.11.5 Blow-Down Cock 3.11.6 Fusible Plug 3.11.7 Safety Valves 3.11.8 High Steam and Low Water Safety Valve 3.12 Boiler Accessories 3.12.1 Air Preheater 3.12.2 Economiser 3.12.3 Superheater 3.13 Steam Accumulators 3.13.1 Variable Pressure Accumulator 3.13.2 Constant Pressure Accumulator 3.14 Performance of Steam Generator 3.14.1 Evaporation Rate 3.14.2 Performance 3.14.3 Boiler Thermal Efficiency 3.14.4 Heat Losses in a Boiler Plant 3.14.5 Boiler Trial and Heat Balance Sheet 3.15 Steam Generator Control 3.16 Electrostatic Precipitator 3.17 Draught 3.17.1 Classification of Draught 3.17.2 Natural Draught 3.17.3 Height and Diameter of Chimney 3.17.4 Condition for Maximum Discharge Through Chimney 3.17.5 Efficiency of Chimney 3.17.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural Draught 3.17.7 Draught Losses 3.17.8 Artificial Draught 3.17.9 Comparison of Forced and Induced Draughts 3.17.10 Comparison of Mechanical and Natural Draughts 3.17.11 Balanced Draught 3.17.12 Steam Jet Draught Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Explanatory Notes Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple -choice Questions Chapter 4: Steam Power Cycles 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Carnot Vapour Cycle 4.2.1 Drawbacks of Carnot Cycle 4.3 Rankine Cycle 4.3.1 Analysis of Rankine Cycle 4.3.2 Effect of Boiler and Condenser Pressure 4.4 Methods of Improving Efficiency 4.4.1 Reheat Cycle 4.4.2 Effect of Pressure Drop in the Reheater 4.5 Regeneration 4.5.1 Regenerative Cycle with Open Heaters 4.5.2 Regenerative Cycle with Closed Heaters 4.6 Reheat-regenerative Cycle 4.7 Properties of an Ideal Working Fluid 4.8 Binary Vapour Cycles 4.9 Combined Power and Heating Cycle-cogeneration Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 5: Steam Engines 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Classification of Steam Engines 5.3 Constructional Features of a Steam Engine 5.3.1 Steam Engine Parts 5.4 Terminology Used In Steam Engine 5.5 Working of a Steam Engine 5.6 Rankine Cycle 5.7 Modified Rankine Cycle 5.8 Hypothetical or Theoretical Indicator Diagram 5.9 Actual Indicator Diagram 5.10 Mean Effective Pressure 5.10.1 Without Clearance 5.10.2 With Clearance 5.10.3 With Clearance and Compression 5.10.4 With Clearance and Polytropic Expansion and Compression 5.11 Power Developed and Efficiencies 5.11.1 Indicated Power 5.11.2 Brake Power 5.11.3 Efficiencies of Steam Engine 5.12 Governing of Steam Engines 5.13 Saturation Curve and Missing Quantity 5.14 Heat Balance Sheet 5.15 Performance Curves Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 6: Flow Through Steam Nozzles 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Continuity Equation 6.3 Velocity of Flow of Steam Through Nozzles 6.3.1 Flow of Steam Through the Nozzle 6.4 Mass Flow Rate Of Steam 6.5 Critical Pressure Ratio 6.6 Maximum Discharge 6.7 Effect of Friction on Expansion of Steam 6.8 Nozzle Efficiency 6.9 Supersaturated or Metastable Flow through A Nozzle 6.10 Isentropic, One-dimensional Steady Flow Through A Nozzle 6.10.1 Relationship between Actual and Stagnation Properties 6.11 Mass Rate of Flow Through an Isentropic Nozzle 6.11.1 Effect of Varying the Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate 6.12 Normal Shock in an Ideal Gas Flowing Through A Nozzle Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Explanatory Notes Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 7: Steam Turbines 7.1 Principle of Operation of Steam Turbines 7.2 Classification of Steam Turbines 7.3 Comparison of Impulse and Reaction Turbines 7.4 Compounding of Impulse Turbines 7.5 Velocity Diagrams for Impulse Steam Turbine 7.5.1 Condition for Maximum Blade Efficiency 7.5.2 Maximum Work Done 7.5.3 Velocity Diagrams for Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine 7.5.4 Effect of Blade Friction on Velocity Diagrams 7.5.5 Impulse Turbine with Several Blade Rings 7.6 Advantages and Limitations of Velocity Compounding 7.6.1 Advantages 7.6.2 Limitations 7.7 Velocity Diagrams for Impulse-reaction Turbine 7.8 Reheat Factor 7.9 Losses in Steam Turbines 7.10 Turbine Efficiencies 7.11 Governing of Steam Turbines 7.12 Labyrinth Packing 7.13 Back Pressure Turbine 7.14 Pass Out or Extraction Turbine 7.15 Co-generation 7.16 Erosion of Steam Turbine Blades Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Explanatory Notes Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multi ple-choice Questions Chapter 8: Steam Condensers 8.1 Definition 8.2 Functions of A Condenser 8.3 Elements of Steam Condensing Plant 8.4 Types of Steam Condensers 8.4.1 Jet Condensers 8.4.2 Surface Condensers 8.5 Requirements of Modern Surface Condensers 8.6 Comparison of Jet and Surface Condensers 8.6.1 Jet Condensers 8.6.2 Surface Condensers 8.7 Vacuum Measurement 8.8 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 8.9 Mass of Cooling Water Required in a Condenser 8.10 Air Removal from the Condenser 8.10.1 Sources of Air Infiltration in Condenser 8.10.2 Effects of Air Infiltration in Condensers 8.11 Air Pump 8.11.1 Edward’s Air Pump 8.12 Vacuum Efficiency 8.13 Condenser Efficiency 8.14 Cooling Tower Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 9: Gas Power Cycles 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Piston-cylinder Arrangement 9.3 Carnot Cycle 9.4 Stirling Cycle 9.5 Ericsson Cycle 9.6 Atkinson Cycle 9.7 Otto Cycle (constant Volume Cycle) 9.8 Diesel Cycle 9.9 Dual Cycle 9.10 Brayton Cycle 9.11 Comparison Between Otto, Diesel, and Dual Cycles Fill in the Blanks True or False Answers Multiple-choice Questions Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 10: Internal Combustion Engine Systems 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Classification of Internal Combustion Engines 10.3 Construction Features 10.4 Working of IC Engines 10.4.1 Four-stroke Spark-ignition Engine 10.4.2 Four-stroke Compression-ignition Engine 10.4.3 Two-stroke Spark-ignition Engine 10.4.4 Two-stroke Compression-ignition Engine 10.5 Comparison of Four-stroke and Two-stroke Engines 10.6 Comparison of SI and CI Engines 10.7 Merits and Demerits of Two-stroke Engines Over Four-stroke Engines 10.7.1 Merits 10.7.2 Demerits 10.8 Valve Timing Diagrams 10.8.1 Four-stroke SI Engine 10.8.2 Four-stroke CI Engine 10.8.3 Two-stroke SI Engine 10.8.4 Two-stroke CI Engine 10.9 Scavenging Process 10.10 Applications of IC Engines 10.11 Theoretical and Actual p-v Diagrams 10.11.1 Four-stroke Petrol Engine 10.11.2 Four-stroke Diesel Engine 10.11.3 Two-stroke Petrol Engine 10.11.4 Two-stroke Diesel Engine 10.12 Carburetion 10.12.1 Simple Carburettor 10.12.2 Compensating Jet 10.12.3 Theory of Simple Carburettor 10.12.4 Limitations of Single Jet Carburettor 10.12.5 Different Devices Used to Meet the Requirements of an Ideal Carburettor 10.12.6 Complete Carburettor 10.13 Fuel Injection Systems In Si Engines 10.13.1 Continuous Port Injection System (Lucas Mechanical Petrol Injection System) 10.13.2 Electronic Fuel Injection System 10.13.3 Rotary Gate Meter Fuel Injection System 10.14 Fuel Injection in CI Engines 10.14.1 Types of Injection Systems 10.14.2 Design of Fuel Nozzle 10.15 Fuel Ignition 10.15.1 Requirement of Ignition System 10.15.2 Ignition Systems 10.16 Combustion in IC Engines 10.16.1 Stages of Combustion in SI Engines 10.16.2 Ignition Lag (or Delay) in SI Engines 10.16.3 Factors Affecting the Flame Propagation 10.16.4 Phenomena of Knocking/Detonation in SI Engines 10.16.5 Factors Influencing Detonation/Knocking 10.16.6 Methods for Suppressing Knocking 10.16.7 Effects of Knocking/Detonation 10.17 Combustion Chambers for SI Engines 10.17.1 Basic Requirements of a Good Combustion Chamber 10.17.2 Combustion Chamber Design Principles 10.17.3 Combustion Chamber Designs 10.18 Combustion in CI Engines 10.18.1 Stages of Combustion 10.18.2 Delay Period or Ignition Delay 10.18.3 Variables Affecting Delay Period 10.19 Knocking in CI Engines 10.19.1 Factors Affecting Knocking in CI Engines 10.19.2 Controlling the Knocking 10.19.3 Comparison of Knocking in SI and CI Engines 10.20 Combustion Chambers for CI Engines 10.21 Lubrication Systems 10.21.1 Functions of a Lubricating System 10.21.2 Desirable Properties of a Lubricating Oil 10.21.3 Lubricating Systems Types 10.21.4 Lubricating System for IC Engines 10.21.5 Lubrication of Different Engine Parts 10.22 Necessity of IC Engine Cooling 10.22.1 Types of Cooling Systems 10.22.2 Precision Cooling 10.22.3 Dual Circuit Cooling 10.22.4 Disadvantages of Overcooling 10.23 Engine Radiators 10.23.1 Radiator Matrix 10.23.2 Water Requirements of Radiator 10.23.3 Fans 10.24 Cooling of Exhaust Valve 10.25 Governing of IC Engines 10.26 Rating of SI Engine Fuels-octane Number 10.26.1 Anti-knock Agents 10.26.2 Performance Number 10.27 Highest Useful Compression Ratio 10.28 Rating of CI Engine Fuels 10.29 IC Engine Fuels 10.29.1 Fuels for SI Engines 10.29.2 Fuels for CI Engines 10.30 Alternative Fuels for IC Engines 10.30.1 Alcohols 10.30.2 Use of Hydrogen in CI Engines 10.30.3 Biogas 10.30.4 Producer (or Water) Gas 10.30.5 Biomass-generated Gas 10.30.6 LPG as SI Engine Fuel 10.30.7 Compressed Natural Gas 10.30.8 Coal Gasification and Coal Liquefaction 10.30.9 Non-edible Vegetable Oils 10.30.10 Non-edible Wild Oils 10.30.11 Ammonia Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 11: Performance of Internal Combustion Engines 11.1 Performance Parameters 11.2 Basic Engine Measurements 11.3 Heat Balance Sheet 11.4 Willan’s Line Method 11.5 Morse Test 11.6 Performance of SI Engines 11.6.1 Performance of SI Engine at Constant Speed and Variable Load 11.7 Performance of CI Engines 11.8 Performance Maps 11.9 Measurement of Air Consumption by Air-box Method 11.10 Measurement of Brake Power 11.11 Supercharging of IC Engines 11.11.1 Thermodynamic Cycle 11.11.2 Supercharging of SI Engines 11.11.3 Supercharging of CI Engines 11.11.4 Effects of Supercharging 11.11.5 Objectives of Supercharging 11.11.6 Configurations of a Supercharger 11.11.7 Supercharging of Single Cylinder Engines 11.12 SI Engine Emissions 11.12.1 Exhaust Emissions 11.12.2 Evaporative Emission 11.12.3 Crankcase Emission 11.12.4 Lead Emission 11.13 Control of Emissions in SI Engine 11.14 Crank Case Emission Control 11.15 CI Engine Emissions 11.15.1 Effect of Engine Type on Diesel Emission 11.15.2 Control of Emission from Diesel Engine 11.15.3 NOx−Emission Control 11.6 Three-way Catalytic Converter 11.16.1 Function of a Catalyst in a Catalytic Converter 11.17 Environmental Problems Created by Exhaust Emission from IC Engines 11.18 Use of Unleaded Petrol 11.18.1 Use of Additives Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Explanatory Notes Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 12: Reciprocating Air Compressors 12.1Introduction 12.2 Uses of Compressed Air in Industry 12.3 Working Principle of Single-stage Reciprocating Compressor 12.4 Terminology 12.5 Types of Compression 12.5.1 Methods for Approximating Compression Process to Isothermal 12.6 Single-stage Compression 12.6.1 Required Work 12.6.2 Volumetric Efficiency 12.6.3 Isothermal Efficiency 12.6.4 Adiabatic Efficiency 12.6.5 Calculation of Main Dimensions 12.7 Multi-stage Compression 12.7.1 Two-stage Compressor 12.7.2 Heat Rejected to the Intercooler 12.7.3 Cylinder Dimensions 12.7.4 Intercooler and Aftercooler 12.8 Indicated Power of A Compressor 12.9 Air Motors 12.10 Indicator Diagram 12.11 Heat Rejected 12.12 Control of Compressor Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Explanatory Notes Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 13: Rotary Air Compressors 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Working Principle of Different Rotary Compressors 13.2.1 Roots Blower or Lobe Compressor 13.2.2 Vanes Type Blower 13.2.3 Lysholm Compressor 13.2.4 Screw Compressor 13.3 Comparison of Rotary and Reciprocating Compressors Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 14: Centrifugal Air Compressors 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Constructional Features 14.3 Working Principle 14.4 Variation of Velocity and Pressure 14.5 Types of Impellers 14.6 Comparison of Centrifugal and Reciprocating Compressors 14.7 Comparison of Centrifugal and Rotary Compressors 14.8 Static and Stagnation Properties 14.9 Adiabatic and Isentropic Processes 14.9.1 Isentropic Efficiency 14.10 Velocity Diagrams 14.10.1 Theory of Operation 14.10.2 Width of Blades of Impeller and Diffuser 14.11 Slip Factor and Pressure Coefficient 14.12 Losses 14.13 Effect of Impeller Blade Shape on Performance 14.14 Diffuser 14.15 Pre-whirl 14.16 Performance Characteristics 14.17 Surging and Choking Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Explanatory notes Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 15: Axial Flow Air Compressors 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Constructional Features 15.3 Working Principle 15.4 Simple Theory of Aerofoil Blading 15.5 Velocity Diagrams 15.6 Degreeof Reaction 15.7 Pressure Rise in Isentropic Flow Through a Cascade 15.8 Polytropic Efficiency 15.9 Flow Coefficient, Head or Work Coefficient, Deflection Coefficient, and Pressure Co-efficient 15.10 Pressure Rise in A Stage and Number of Stages 15.11 Surging, Choking, and Stalling 15.12 Performance Characteristics 15.13 Comparison of Axial Flow and Centrifugal Compressors 15.14 Applications of Axial Flow Compressors 15.15 Losses in Axial Flow Compressors Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Explanatory Notes Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 16: Gas Turbines 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Fields of Application of Gas Turbine 16.3 Limitations of Gas Turbines 16.4 Comparison of Gas Turbines With IC Engines 16.4.1 Advantages 16.4.2 Disadvantages 16.5 Advantages of Gas Turbines Over Steam Turbines 16.6 Classification of Gas Turbines 16.6.1 Constant Pressure Combustion Gas Turbine 16.6.2 Constant Volume Combustion Gas Turbine 16.7 Comparison of Open and Closed Cycle Gas Turbines 16.8 Position of Gas Turbine in the Power Industry 16.9 Thermodynamics of Constant Pressure Gas Turbine: Brayton Cycle 16.9.1 Efficiency 16.9.2 Specific Output 16.9.3 Maximum Work Output 16.9.4 Work Ratio 16.9.5 Optimum Pressure Ratio for Maximum Specific Work Output 16.10 Cycle Operatione with Machine Efficiency 16.10.1 Maximum Pressure Ratio for Maximum Specific Work 16.10.2 Optimum Pressure Ratio for Maximum Cycle Thermal Efficiency 16.11 Open Cycle Constant Pressure Gas Turbine 16.12 Methods for Improvement of Thermal Efficiency of Open Cycle Constant Pressure Gas Turbine 16.12.1 Regeneration 16.12.2 Intercooling 16.12.3 Reheating 16.12.4 Reheat and Regenerative Cycle 16.12.5 Cycle with Intercooling and Regeneration 16.12.6 Cycle with Intercooling and Reheating 16.12.7 Cycle with Intercooling, Regeneration and Reheating 16.13 Effects of Operating Variables 16.13.1 Effect of Pressure Ratio 16.13.2 Effect of Efficiencies of Compressor and Turbine on Thermal Efficiency 16.14 Multi-shaft Systems 16.15 Multi-shaft System Turbines in Series 16.16 Gas Turbine Fuels 16.17 Blade Materials 16.17.1 Selection 16.17.2 Requirements of Blade Material 16.18 Cooling of Blades 16.18.1 Advantages of Cooling 16.18.2 Different Methods of Blade Cooling Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Explanatory Notes Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 17: Jet Propulsion 17.1 Principle of Jet Propulsion 17.2 Jet Propulsion Systems 17.2.1 Screw Propeller 17.2.2 Ramjet Engine 17.2.3 Pulse Jet Engine 17.2.4 Turbo-jet Engine 17.2.5 Turbo-Prop Engine 17.2.6 Rocket Propulsion 17.3 Jet Propulsion V’s Rocket Propulsion 17.4 Basic Cycle for Turbo-jet Engine 17.4.1 Thrust 17.4.2 Thrust Power 17.4.3 Propulsive Power 17.4.4 Propulsive Efficiency 17.4.5 Thermal Efficiency 17.4.6 Overall Efficiency 17.4.7 Jet Efficiency 17.4.8 Ram Air Efficiency 17.5 Thrust Work, Propulsive Work, and Propulsive Efficiency for Rocket Engine Summary for Quick Revision Multiple-choice Questions Explanatory Notes Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 18: Introduction to Refrigeration 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Refrigeration Systems 18.3 Methods of Refrigeration 18.3.1 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System 18.3.2 Vapour Absorption System 18.3.3 Ejector-Compression System 18.3.4 Electro-Lux Refrigeration 18.3.5 Solar Refrigeration 18.3.6 Thermo-electric Refrigeration 18.3.7 Vortex Tube Refrigeration 18.4 Unit of Refrigeration 18.5 Refrigeration Effect 18.6 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 18.7 Difference between A Heat Engine, Refrigerator and Heat Pump 18.8 Power Consumption Of A Refrigerating Machine 18.9 Air Refrigeration Cycles 18.9.1 Open Air Refrigeration Cycle 18.9.2 Closed (or dense) Air Refrigeration Cycle 18.10 Reversed Carnot Cycle 18.10.1 Temperature Limitations for Reversed Carnot Cycle 18.10.2 Vapour as a Refrigerant in Reversed Carnot Cycle 18.10.3 Gas as a Refrigerant in Reversed Carnot Cycle 18.10.4 Limitations of Reversed Carnot Cycle 18.11 Bell-coleman Cycle (or Reversed Brayton or Joule Cycle) 18.11.1 Bell-Coleman Cycle with Polytropic Processes 18.12 Refrigerants 18.13 Classification of Refrigerants 18.14 Designation of Refrigerants 18.15 Desirable Properties of Refrigerants 18.16 Applications of Refrigerants 18.17 Eco-friendly Refrigerants 18.18 Refrigerant Selection Multiple-choice Questions Review Questions Exercises Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 19: Vapour Compression and Vapour Absorption Systems 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Comparison of Vapour Compression System with Air Refrigeration System 19.3 Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration System 19.4 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System 19.5 Use of T-s and p-h Charts 19.6 Effect of Suction Pressure 19.7 Effect of Discharge Pressure 19.8 Effect of Superheating of Refrigerant Vapour 19.8.1 Superheat Horn 19.9 Effect of Subcooling (or Undercooling) of Refrigerant Vapour 19.10 Vapour Absorption System 19.11 Working Principle of Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System 19.11.1 Working 9.12 Advantages of Vapour Absorption System Over Vapour Compression System 9.13 Coefficient of Performance of an Ideal Vapour Absorption System 19.14 Ammonia-water (or Practical) Vapour Absorption System (NH3 – H2O) 19.15 Lithium Bromide-water Vapour Absorption System (liBr-H2O) 19.15.1 Working Principle 19.15.2 Lithium Bromide-Water System Equipment 19.16 Comparison of Ammonia-water and Lithium Bromide-water Absorption Systems Exercise Chapter 20: Air-Conditioning and Psychrometrics 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Principles of Psychrometry 20.3 Psychrometric Relations 20.4 Enthalpy of Moist Air 20.5 Humid Specific Heat 20.6 Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature or Adiabatic Saturation Temperature (AST) 20.7 Psychrometric Chart 20.8 Psychrometric Processes 20.8.1 Sensible Heating or Cooling Process 20.8.2 Humidification or Dehumidification Process 20.8.3 Heating and Humidification 20.8.4 Sensible Heat Factor-SHF 20.8.5 Cooling and Dehumidification 20.8.6 Air Washer 20.8.7 Cooling with Adiabatic Humidification 20.8.8 Cooling and Humidification by Water Injection (Evaporative Cooling) 20.8.9 Heating and Humidification by Steam Injection 20.8.10 Heating and Adiabatic Chemical Dehumidification 20.9 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Air Streams 20.10 Thermal Analysis of Human Body 20.10.1 Factors Affecting Human Comfort 20.10.2 Physiological Hazards Resulting from Heat 20.11 Effective Temperature 20.11.1 Comfort Chart 20.11.2 Factors Affecting Optimum Effective Temperature 20.12 Selection of Inside and Outside Design Conditions 20.12.1 Selection of Inside Design Conditions 20.12.2 Selection of Outside Design Conditions 20.13 Cooling Load Estimation 20.13.1 Heat Transfer Through Walls and Roofs 20.13.2 Heat Gain from Solar Radiation 20.13.3 Sol Air Temperature 20.13.4 Solar Heat Gain Through Glass Areas 20.13.5 Heat Gain Due to Infiltration 20.13.6 Heat Gain from Products 20.13.7 Heat Gain from Lights 20.13.8 Heat Gain from Power Equipments 20.13.9 Heat Gain Through Ducts 20.13.10 Empirical Methods to Evaluate Heat Transfer Through Walls and Roofs 20.14 Heating Load Estimation 20.15 Room Sensible Heat Factor (rshf) 20.15.1 Estimation of Supply Air Conditions 20.16 Grand Sensible Heat Factor 20.17 Effective Room Sensible Heat Factor 20.18 Air Conditioning Systems 20.18.1 Summer Air-conditioning System with Ventilation Air and Zero By-pass Factor 20.18.2 Summer Air-conditioning System with Ventilation Air and By-pass Factor 20.18.3 Winter Air-conditioning System 20.18.4 Comfort Air-conditioning System 20.18.5 Industrial Air-conditioning System Review Questions Exercises Appendix A Index