Making Green Cities: Concepts, Challenges and Practice

Description

This book shows what role nature can play in a city and how this can make it a better place for people to live. People, planners, designers and politicians are working towards the development of green cities. Some cities are already promoted as green cities, while others are on their way to become one. But their goals are often unclear and can include different facets. Presenting contributions from world leading researchers in the field of urban ecology, the editors provide an interdisciplinary overview of best practices and challenges in creating green cities. They show examples of how to build up these cities from bits and pieces to districts and urban extensions. Each example concludes with a summary of the collected knowledge, the learning points and how this can be used in other places. The best practices are collected from around the world – Europe, America and Asia. Contributions cover a wide range of biophysical and cultural backgrounds within these three continents, including the Central, Southern and Eastern European region, as well as Latin and North America. The new dynamic urban development of Asia is illustrated by case studies from China and the Indian subcontinent. The reader will learn which role nature can play in green cities and what the basic requirements are in terms of culture, pre-existing nature conditions, existing urban surroundings, history, design and planning. Preface Acknowledgements Contents Editor, Co-Editors and Contributors The Concepts—Green City, Urban Nature, Benefits The Green City: General Concept 1 What Does “The Green City” Mean? 2 What is Urban Nature? 3 What is Urban Green and Blue Infrastructure? 4 How Do Cities Implement the Green City Concept? References The Urban Nature Concept—of What Urban Green Consists of 1 The Four Urban Natures Approach 2 Urban Woodlands—Remnants of Pristine Landscapes 3 Public Urban Parks—Designed Urban Green Spaces 4 Urban Gardens—The Private Urban Green 5 Urban Waters—The Urban Blue Infrastructure 6 New Urban Wildernesses—Novel Urban Ecosystems References The Benefit Concept—How People Can Benefit from Urban Nature 1 What We Expect from Urban Nature 2 Which Ecosystems Provide Which Ecosystem Services? 3 How Can Urban Ecosystem Services Be Assessed? 4 Biodiversity as an Urban Concept References Urban Agriculture—More Than Food Production Urban Agriculture—More Than Food Production 1 Urban Agriculture: An Introduction References Allotment Gardens Contribute to Urban Ecosystem Service: Case Study Salzburg, Austria 1 Introduction 1.1 Allotment Gardens 1.2 Allotment Gardens Provide Ecosystem Services 1.3 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Questioning of Allotment Holders 3 Results 3.1 The Allotment Gardeners 3.2 Where the Gardeners Come From 3.3 Reasons for Allotment Gardening 3.4 Utilization of the Allotment Plot and Public Green Spaces 3.5 Partitioning of the Allotment Gardens 3.6 Changes Undertaken in the Gardens 3.7 Food Production 3.8 Experiencing Nature (Learning and Teaching About Nature) 3.9 Ecological Gardening and Environmental Behavior 4 Discussion 4.1 Comparing Recreation in Allotments and Urban Parks by Frequency and Activities 4.2 Can Allotments Be a Good Place to Experience Nature? 4.3 Changes of Allotment Structure and Management—Change of ES? 4.4 Healthy Food Production by Allotment Gardening 5 Conclusions References Community Garden Practices in High-Density High-Rise Urban Areas in Shanghai, China 1 Introduction 1.1 Community Gardens in Shanghai 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Analytical Methods 3 Results 3.1 Baicao Garden: Residents’ Self-Governance 3.2 Knowledge and Innovation Community Garden (KICG): A Collaborative Effort 4 Discussion and Conclusions References Urban Gardening and Environmental Behavior of Urban Gardeners in Different Garden Forms in Barcelona, Spain 1 Introduction 1.1 Urban Gardening 1.2 Urban Gardening in Spain 1.3 Aim 2 Methods 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Questioning of Urban Gardeners 3 Results 3.1 Who Are the Gardeners? 3.2 Where the Gardeners Live and Why They Are on This Gardening Site 3.3 Motivation for Gardening 3.4 Utilization of the Garden Plots and Public Green Spaces 3.5 Food Production and Consumption 3.6 Ecological Gardening and Environmental Behavior 3.7 Changes Undertaken in the Gardens 3.8 Experiencing Nature (Learning and Teaching About Nature) 4 Discussion 4.1 Urban Gardening: Beyond Food Production? 4.2 Divergences Among Urban Garden Forms 5 Conclusions References Investigations on Water Utilization and Water Management Practices in Urban/Peri-Urban Agriculture of Bahawalpur, Pakistan 1 Introduction 1.1 Water Utilization and Water Management Practices in Urban/Peri-Urban Agriculture 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Methodological Steps 3 Results 3.1 Quality, Distribution and Availability of Groundwater and Surface Water 3.2 Cropping Pattern and Land Holdings 3.3 Water Resources and Delivery Infrastructure 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Edible City—A New Approach for Upscaling Local Food Supply? The Case of Andernach, Germany 1 Introduction 1.1 Urban Food Supply as a Response to Societal Challenges in Our Cities? 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Data Collection and Processing 3 Results 3.1 What Can We Understand Under the Concept of an Edible City? 3.2 What Factors Influenced the Implementation of the Edible City Andernach? 3.3 How is Andernach Benefitting from the Edible City? 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References New Forms of Urban Agriculture in Metropolitan Areas: Examples from Italy 1 Introduction 1.1 The Role of Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture in Contemporary Metropolitan Contexts 1.2 Planning New Forms of Urban Agriculture 1.3 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Analytical Methods 3 Results 3.1 Urban Farms in Rome 3.2 Allotment Gardens in Catania 3.3 Community-Supported Agriculture in Bologna 3.4 South Agricultural Park Milan 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Structure and Processes of Home Gardens in Urban Landscape: The Case of Galle, Kandy, and Jaffna Cities in Sri Lanka 1 Introduction 1.1 Structure and Processes of Home Gardens 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Sampling and Data Collection 2.3 Data Analysis 3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Structural Patterns of Urban Home Gardens in Respect to Landscape Configuration Indicators 3.2 Land Cover Pattern in Urban Home Gardens 3.3 Brief Discussion on Processes of Urban Home Gardens 4 Conclusions References Urban Wildland—Forests, Water, and Wetlands Urban Wildland—Forests, Waters and Wetlands 1 Urban Wildland: An Introduction References Urban Forests in Megacities from the Perspective of Ecosystem Services Using the Timiryazevsky Forest Park, Moscow, as a Case Study 1 Introduction 1.1 Urban Forests 1.2 Urban Green Space in Moscow 1.3 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Assessment Methods 3 Results 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Where the Rivers Were: Connecting Indigenous Blue Space to Contemporary City Design 1 Introduction 1.1 Urban Blue Space 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Methods 3 Results 3.1 Arlington 3.2 Detroit 3.3 Minneapolis 3.4 Philadelphia 3.5 Richmond 3.6 Toledo 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Sponge City Practices for Sustainable Water Solutions in China: Reflections from Two Cases 1 Introduction 1.1 Urbanization and Water Resources 1.2 The Case of China 1.3 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Methodological Approach 3 Results 3.1 Varied Sponge City Strategies in Two Sites 3.2 Detailed Strategies in the Haizhu Wetland, Guangzhou City 3.3 Detailed Strategies in the North and South Mountain Areas, Xining City 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Assessing the Impact of Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) Changes on the Biodiversity of River Ravi, Lahore—Pakistan 1 Introduction 1.1 Impact of Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) Changes 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Analytical Methods 3 Results 3.1 Change in Land Use/Land Cover 3.2 Effects of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on the River Biodiversity 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Rehabilitation of Riverbanks in the Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires: From Research to Action 1 Introduction 1.1 Impact of Urbanization on Riverscapes and Strategies for Their Rehabilitation 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Data Collection and Assessment 3 Results 3.1 Ecological Indicators 3.2 Sustainable Development Handbook 4 Discussion and Conclusions References The Influence of Vacant Land Presence on Proliferation of Invasive Alien Plant Species: The Case of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle Var. altissima 1 Introduction 1.1 Impact of Invasive Alien Plant Species in Urban Areas 1.2 The Case of Ailanthus altissima 1.3 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Selection of Study Sites 2.3 In Situ Observations of Ailanthus altissima 3 Results 3.1 Spatial Patterns and Characteristics Along the Downtown—Outskirts Transect 3.2 The Vacant Lands—Ailanthus altissima Development Interplay 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Forest Reserves in Urban Landscape: Case of Udawattakele and Dunumadalawa Forest Patches in Kandy, Sri Lanka 1 Introduction 1.1 Urbanization, Urban Ecosystem Services, and the Role of Urban Forests 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Data Collection 3 Results 3.1 Ecosystem Services 3.2 Challenges for Ecosystem Services 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Urban Protected Areas and Urban Biodiversity Urban Protected Areas and Urban Biodiversity 1 Urban Protected Areas and Urban Biodiversity: An Introduction References Bridging the People–Nature Divide Using the Participatory Planning of Urban Protected Areas 1 Introduction 1.1 Urban Protected Areas 1.2 Participatory Planning 1.3 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Methods 3 Results 3.1 Social Survey and What People Think About Văcărești Nature Park (VNP) 3.2 Public Online Platform PPGIS Highlights VNP Threats 3.3 The Workshops on How VNP Should Be Managed 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References The Nature Outside Cities: Trade-Offs and Synergies of Cultural Ecosystem Services from Natura 2000 Sites 1 Introduction 1.1 Protected Areas as Support for Cities’ Activities 1.2 Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES) for Urban Inhabitants 1.3 Natura 2000 in Europe 1.4 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Use of Social Media Platforms 3 Results 3.1 Photos Taken Within Natura 2000 Sites 3.2 Important CES Provided by Natura 2000 Sites 3.3 Synergies and Trade-Offs Between CES 4 Discussion 4.1 Recreational Value of Natura 2000 Sites 4.2 Aesthetics Versus Recreational Versus Conservational Values 5 Conclusions References Urban Biodiversity Under Global Trends and Drivers—A Comparative Study of Urban Parks in Poznań (Poland) and Salzburg (Austria) 1 Introduction 1.1 Biodiversity and Urban Parks 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Assessment of the Present-Day Value of Urban Parks 2.3 Analysis of the Role Played by Architectural Patterns and Gardening Practices 3 Results 3.1 Plant Richness and Biodiversity in Poznań’s and Salzburg’s Urban Parks 3.2 Architectural Patterns and Gardening Practices in Poznań’s and Salzburg’s Urban Parks 4 Discussion 4.1 Present-Day Value of Urban Parks for Plant Biodiversity Conservation 4.2 Architectural Patterns and Gardening Practices for Plant Species Biodiversity 5 Conclusions References Relationship Between Built Environment and Biodiversity in High-Density Metropolitan Areas: The Case of Shanghai, China 1 Introduction 1.1 Urbanization and Urban Biodiversity in Shanghai 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Data on Biodiversity and Its Spatial Distribution 2.2 Built Environment Variables and Calculation Method 3 Results 3.1 Correlation Analysis for Development Intensity and Biodiversity 3.2 Correlation Analysis for Ecological Land and Biodiversity 3.3 Correlation Analysis for Water Network and Biodiversity 4 Discussion 4.1 Influence of Development Intensity on Biodiversity 4.2 Influence of Ecological Land on Biodiversity 4.3 Influence of Water Networks on Biodiversity 5 Conclusions References Urban Greening as a Response to Societal Challenges. Toward Biophilic Megacities (Case Studies of Saint Petersburg and Moscow, Russia) 1 Introduction 1.1 Urbanization and Green Infrastructure 1.2 Urbanization and Green Infrastructure in Russia 1.3 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 A Literature Review 3 Results 3.1 History of Urban Development in Moscow and Saint Petersburg 3.2 Modern Green Infrastructure Strategy (2010–2018) 3.3 Urban Biodiversity of Green Areas 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Perceptions, Expectations, and Preferences of Istanbul Residents Related to Nature and Nature Experience 1 Introduction 1.1 Definition of Nature and Nature Experience 1.2 Expected Benefits of Nature Experience 1.3 Perceiving Nature and Natural Elements 1.4 Nature and Nature Experience in Developing Countries 1.5 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Data Collection and Analyses 3 Results 3.1 Respondents 3.2 Meaning of and General Attitudes Toward Nature 3.3 Recreational Area Preferences and Expected Benefits from Using Natural Areas 3.4 Nature Experience at Recreational Areas Surrounding Istanbul 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Multifunctional Urban Green Spaces Multifunctional Urban Green Spaces 1 Multifunctional Urban Green Spaces: An Introduction References Relationship Between Form and Structure of Green Spaces and Uses: The Case of Parks in Buenos Aires City, Argentina 1 Introduction 1.1 Green Infrastructure and Its Uses 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Analytical Methods 3 Results 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Visitors’ Demands and the Present Supply of Recreational Services in Urban Parks in Shanghai (China) 1 Introduction 1.1 Urban Parks and Visiting Motives 1.2 The Chinese Perspective on Parks 1.3 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Mapping of Parks and Adjacent Neighborhoods (Research Issue 1) 2.3 Observational Study (Research Issue 1) 2.4 Questionnaires and Interviews (Research Issues 2 and 3) 3 Results 3.1 Characteristics of the Survey Participants and the Surrounding Neighborhoods 3.2 Present State of the Studied Urban Parks 3.3 Motives of Visitors 3.4 Park Features Perceived as Beneficial for Recreation 4 Discussion 4.1 Comparison Between the New and the Old Parks 4.2 Motives for Visiting Urban Parks 4.3 Attributes of Park Scenes Preferred by Visitors 5 Conclusions References Urban Residents’ Preferences and Recreational Use of Urban Nature in Istanbul 1 Introduction 1.1 Usage of Urban Green 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area: Istanbul and Its Recreational Areas 2.2 Data Collection 2.3 Survey Instrument 2.4 Data Analysis 3 Results 3.1 Characteristics of Survey Respondents 3.2 Most Visited Recreational Areas 3.3 Relationship Among the Use Variables 3.4 Use Variation by Recreational Area 4 Discussion 5 Conclusion References Planning Multifunctional Urban Green Infrastructure for Compact Cities in Europe 1 Introduction 1.1 Green Infrastructure in Compact Cities 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Data Collection and Analysis 3 Results 3.1 Core Features of the Landscape Program 3.2 Multifunctionality as a Strategic Planning Principle 3.3 Implementation of Multifunctional Spaces 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Changes in Urban Green Infrastructure in Tabriz, Iran 1 Introduction 1.1 Urban Green and the Effects of Urbanization 1.2 Urban Green and the Effects of Urbanization in Iran 1.3 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Analytical Methods 3 Results 3.1 Changes of Urban Green Spaces in Tabriz 3.2 Accessibility of Green Areas (Parks) 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Mobile Application-Based Field Survey as a Possible Tool for Investigating Visitors’ Perception and Preferences of the Vegetation in Urban Parks 1 Introduction 1.1 Visitors’ Perception and Preferences in Urban Parks 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Park Survey 2.3 Thematic and Spatial Evaluation of the Photos Taken by the Participants 3 Results 3.1 Demographic Composition of the Respondents 3.2 Spatial Distribution of the Photos Taken by Park Survey Participants 3.3 Statistical Evaluation of the Answers Given by Park Survey Participants to the Survey Questions 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Searching for the Perfect Balance in the Multifunctionality of Urban Green Parks 1 Introduction 1.1 Multifunctionality and Urban Parks 1.2 Urban Parks in Romania and Bucharest 1.3 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Quantifying Perceptions of Multifunctionality 3 Results 3.1 Profile of Visitors and Main Functions 3.2 Services and Disservices of the Park 4 Discussion and Conclusions References Green Struggle—Environmental Conflicts Involving Urban Green Areas in Bucharest City 1 Introduction 1.1 Urban Green Areas and Environmental Conflicts 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Analytical Methods 3 Results 3.1 Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Urban Parks 3.2 Categories of Environmental Conflicts in Urban Parks in Bucharest 3.3 Characteristics of Environmental Conflicts in Urban Parks 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Strengthening Social Ties and Biodiversity Through an Urban Park: 18 de Septiembre Park, La Serena, Chile 1 Introduction 1.1 Urban Green Space and Community-Based Initiatives 1.2 Aim 2 Methodology 2.1 Study Area 2.2 Research Methods 3 Results 3.1 18 de Septiembre Park 3.2 The Organization of the Community Enterprise 3.3 “The Park Is the Green Lung of the Neighborhood” 4 Discussion 5 Conclusions References Index