Essentials of Physical Chemistry

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Cover Preface Table of Contents 1. STRUCTURE OF ATOM–CLASSICAL MECHANICS 2. STRUCTURE OF ATOM–WAVE MECHANICAL APPROACH 3. ISOTOPES, ISOBARS AND ISOTONES 4. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 5. CHEMICAL BONDING–LEWIS THEORY 6. CHEMICAL BONDING–ORBITAL CONCEPT 7. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 8. THERMOCHEMISTRY 9. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 10. GASEOUS STATE 11. LIQUID STATE 12. SOLID STATE 13. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION 14. SOLUTIONS 15. THEORY OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS 16. OSMOSIS AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE 17. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 18. DISTRIBUTION LAW 19. PHASE RULE 20. CHEMICAL KINETICS 21. CATALYSIS 22. COLLOIDS 23. ADSORPTION 24. ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTANCE 25. THEORY OF ELECTROLYTIC DISSOCIATION 26. IONIC EQUILIBRIA–SOLUBILITY PRODUCT 27. ACIDS AND BASES 28. SALT HYDROLYSIS 29. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE 30. PHOTOCHEMISTRY 31. SI UNITS 32. MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS 33. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS APPENDIX INDEX 1: Structure of Atom–Classical Mechanics CATHODE RAYS – THE DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON Figure 1.1 MEASUREMENT OF e/m FOR ELECTRONS Figure 1.2 DETERMINATION OF THE CHARGE ON AN ELECTRON Figure 1.3 DEFINITION OF AN ELECTRON POSITIVE RAYS Figure 1.4 PROTONS NEUTRONS Figure 1.5 SUBATOMIC PARTICLES ALPHA PARTICLES RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL – THE NUCLEAR ATOM Figure 1.6 Figure 1.7 Figure 1.8 Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10 MOSLEY’S DETERMINATION OF ATOMIC NUMBER Figure 1.11 WHAT IS MASS NUMBER ? COMPOSITION OF THE NUCLEUS QUANTUM THEORY AND BOHR ATOM Figure 1.12 Figure 1.13 SPECTRA THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM Figure 1.14 CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM Figure 1.15 ATOMIC SPECTRA Figure 1.16 Figure 1.17 ATOMIC SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN Figure 1.18 Figure 1.19 QUANTUM THEORY OF RADIATION Figure 1.20 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT Figure 1.21 EINSTEIN’S EXPLANATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT Figure 1.22 Figure 1.23 COMPTON EFFECT Figure 1.24 BOHR MODEL OF THE ATOM Figure 1.25 Figure 1.26 Figure 1.27 Figure 1.28 Figure 1.29 SOMMERFELD’S MODIFICATION OF BOHR ATOM Figure 1.30 ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT IN ORBITS Figure 1.31 ZEEMAN EFFECT Figure 1.32 Figure 1.33 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 2: Structure of Atom–Wave Mechanical Approach WAVE MECHANICAL CONCEPT OF ATOM de BROGLIE’S EQUATION THE WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRON Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE SCHRÖDINGER’S WAVE EQUATION CHARGE CLOUD CONCEPT AND ORBITALS Figure 2.4 QUANTUM NUMBERS Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE ENERGY DISTRIBUTION AND ORBITALS Figure 2.8 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRONS IN ORBITALS Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF ELECTRON CONFIGURATION Figure 2.11 Figure 2.12 Figure 2.13 Figure 2.14 Figure 2.15 GROUND-STATE ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS Figure 2.16 IONISATION ENERGY MEASUREMENT OF IONISATION ENERGIES Figure 2.17 Figure 2.18 Figure 2.19 Figure 2.20 ELECTRON AFFINITY ELECTRONEGATIVITY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 3: Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones WHAT ARE ISOTOPES? SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF ISOTOPES IDENTIFICATION OF ISOTOPES Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8 EXAMPLES OF ISOTOPES ISOTOPIC EFFECTS WHAT ARE ISOBARS? WHAT ARE ISOTONES? EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 4: Nuclear Chemistry RADIOACTIVITY TYPES OF RADIATIONS Figure 4.1 PROPERTIES OF RADIATIONS ALPHA RAYS BETA RAYS Figure 4.2 GAMMA RAYS Figure 4.3 DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT OF RADIOACTIVITY Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY THE GROUP DISPLACEMENT LAW Figure 4.8 RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION SERIES Figure 4.9. RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY UNITS OF RADIOACTIVITY Figure 4.10 HALF-LIFE THE ACTIVITY OF A RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCE CALCULATION OF HALE-LIFE CALCULATION OF SAMPLE LEFT AFTER TIME T AVERAGE LIFE RADIOACTIVE EQUILIBRIUM RADIOACTIVE DATING NUCLEAR REACTIONS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NUCLEAR REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS NUCLEAR FISSION REACTIONS Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12 NUCLEAR FUSION REACTIONS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSION NUCLEAR EQUATIONS ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY NUCLEAR ISOMERISM ENERGY RELEASED IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS MASS DEFECT NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14 NEUTRON-PROTON RATIO AND NUCLEAR STABILITY Figure 4.15 NUCLEAR FISSION PROCESS Figure 4.16 NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION NUCLEAR ENERGY Figure 4.17 Figure 4.18 THE ATOMIC BOMB Figure 4.19 NUCLEAR REACTOR Figure 4.20 Figure 4.21 NUCLEAR FUSION PROCESS Figure 4.22 Figure 4.23 SOLAR ENERGY HYDROGEN BOMB OR H-BOMB FUSION AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY IN 21st CENTURY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 5: Chemical Bonding–Lewis Theory TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Figure 5.1 ELECTRONIC THEORY OF VALENCE IONIC BOND CONDITIONS FOR FORMATION OF IONIC BOND FACTORS GOVERNING THE FORMATION OF IONIC BOND SOME EXAMPLES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS Sodium Chloride, NaCl Figure 5.2 Magnesium Chloride, - 2+ 12Mg Cl (MgCl2) Calcium Oxide, Ca2+O2– (CaO) Aluminium Oxide, 3 + 2 –Al2 O3 (Al2O3) CHARACTERISTICS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 COVALENT BOND CONDITIONS FOR FORMATION OF COVALENT BOND SOME EXAMPLES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS EXAMPLES OF MULTIPLE COVALENT COMPOUNDS CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS CO-ORDINATE COVALENT BOND SOME EXAMPLES OF COORDINATE COMPOUNDS OR IONS COMPARISON OF IONIC AND COVALENT BONDS POLAR COVALENT BONDS Figure 5.5 HYDROGEN BONDING (H-Bonding) CONDITIONS FOR HYDROGEN BONDING EXAMPLES OF HYDROGEN-BONDED COMPOUNDS TYPES OF HYDROGEN-BONDING Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROGEN-BONDED COMPOUNDS Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9 EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE VARIABLE VALENCE METALLIC BONDING THE ELECTRON SEA MODEL Figure 5.10 Figure 5.11 Figure 5.12 Figure 5.13 GEOMETRIES OF MOLECULES VSEPR THEORY Figure 5.14 Figure 5.15 Figure 5.16 Figure 5.17 Figure 5.18 Figure 5.19 Figure 5.20 Figure 5.21 Figure 5.22 Figure 5.23 Figure 5.24 Figure 5.25 HOW TO WORK OUT THE SHAPE OF A MOLECULE SOME MORE EXAMPLES EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 6: Chemical Bonding–Orbital Concept BOND FORMATION (VALENCE BOND THEORY) Figure 6.1 BOND FORMATION (VALENCE BOND THEORY) Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Differences Between Sigma and Pi bonds ORBITAL REPRESENTATION OF MOLECULES Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5 CONCEPT OF HYBRIDIZATION TYPES OF HYBRIDIZATION Figure 6.6 Figure 6.7 Figure 6.8 Figure 6.9 HYBRIDIZATION AND SHAPES OF MOLECULES Figure 6.10 Figure 6.11 Figure 6.12 SHAPES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS Figure 6.13 Figure 6.14 Figure 6.15 Figure 6.16 Figure 6.17 Figure 6.18 Figure 6.19 Figure 6.20 Figure 6.21 Figure 6.22 Figure 6.23 Figure 6.24 Figure 6.25 Figure 6.26 Figure 6.27 Figure 6.28 MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY Figure 6.29 Figure 6.30 Figure 6.31 Figure 6.32 Figure 6.33 Figure 6.34 Figure 6.35 BOND ORDER HOMONUCLEAR DIATOMIC MOLECULES Figure 6.36 Figure 6.37 Figure 6.38 Figure 6.39 Figure 6.40 HETERONUCLEAR DIATOMIC MOLECULES Figure 6.41 Figure 6.42 Figure 6.43 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 7: First Law of Thermodynamics THE THREE EMPIRICAL LAWS THERMODYNAMIC TERMS AND BASIC CONCEPTS SYSTEM, BOUNDARY, SURROUNDINGS Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2 HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEMS TYPES OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS Figure 7.3 INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES STATE OF A SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM AND NON–EQUILIBRIUM STATES Figure 7.4 THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES Figure 7.5 REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES Figure 7.6 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES NATURE OF HEAT AND WORK Figure 7.7 PRESSURE–VOLUME WORK Figure 7.8 ISOTHERMAL REVERSIBLE EXPANSION WORK OF AN IDEAL GAS Figure 7.9 ISOTHERMAL IRREVERSIBLE EXPANSION WORK OF AN IDEAL GAS MAXIMUM WORK DONE IN REVERSIBLE EXPANSION Figure 7.10 INTERNAL ENERGY UNITS OF INTERNAL ENERGY FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Figure 7.11 ENTHALPY OF A SYSTEM MOLAR HEAT CAPACITIES JOULE-THOMSON EFFECT Figure 7.12 ADIABATIC EXPANSION OF AN IDEAL GAS Figure 7.13 WORK DONE IN ADIABATIC REVERSIBLE EXPANSION EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 8: Thermochemistry UNITS OF ENERGY CHANGES ENTHALPY OF A REACTION EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS Figure 8.1 THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATIONS HEAT OF REACTION OR ENTHALPY OF REACTION VARIATION OF HEAT (OR ENTHALPY) OF REACTION WITH TEMPERATURE DIFFERENT TYPES OF HEAT (ENTHALPY) OF REACTION HEAT OF FORMATION STANDARD HEAT OF FORMATION HEAT OF COMBUSTION APPLICATIONS OF THE HEAT OF COMBUSTION HEAT OF SOLUTION HEAT OF NEUTRALISATION ENERGY CHANGES DURING TRANSITIONS OR PHASE CHANGES HEAT OF FUSION HEAT OF VAPOURISATION HEAT OF SUBLIMATION HESS’S LAW OF CONSTANT HEAT SUMMATION Figure 8.2 APPLICATIONS OF HESS’S LAW BOND ENERGY MEASUREMENT OF THE HEAT OF REACTION Figure 8.3 Figure 8.4 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 9: Second Law of Thermodynamics SPONTANEOUS PROCESSES Figure 9.1 CRITERIA OF SPONTANEITY ENTROPY Figure 9.2 DEFINITION OF ENTROPY Figure 9.3 STATEMENT OF THE SECOND LAW Figure 9.4 STATEMENT OF THE THIRD LAW Figure 9.5 NUMERICAL DEFINITION OF ENTROPY UNITS OF ENTROPY STANDARD ENTROPY STANDARD ENTROPY OF FORMATION SOME USEFUL DEFINITIONS Figure 9.6 THE CARNOT CYCLE Figure 9.7 MORE STATEMENTS OF THE SECOND LAW DERIVATION OF ENTROPY FROM CARNOT CYCLE Figure 9.8 ENTROPY CHANGE IN AN IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ENTROPY ENTROPY CHANGE FOR AN IDEAL GAS ENTROPY CHANGE ACCOMPANYING CHANGE OF PHASE THE CLAPEYRON EQUATION CLAUSIUS–CLAPEYRON EQUATION APPLICATIONS OF CLAPEYRON-CLAUSIUS EQUATION FREE ENERGY AND WORK FUNCTIONS VAN’T HOFF ISOTHERM Figure 9.9 VAN’T HOFF ISOCHORE FUGACITY AND ACTIVITY CHEMICAL POTENTIAL TIME’S ARROW ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 10: Gaseous State GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES Figure 10.1 Figure 10.2 Figure 10.3 PARAMETERS OF A GAS THE GAS LAWS BOYLE’S LAW Figure 10.4 Figure 10.5 Figure 10.6 CHARLES’S LAW Figure 10.7 Figure 10.8 THE COMBINED GAS LAW GAY LUSSAC’S LAW AVOGADRO’S LAW Figure 10.9 THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES Figure 10.10 Figure 10.11 DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION Figure 10.12 KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES Figure 10.13 Figure 10.14 Figure 10.15 Figure 10.16 Figure 10.17 DERIVATION OF KINETIC GAS EQUATION Figure 10.18 Figure 10.19 KINETIC GAS EQUATION IN TERMS OF KINETIC ENERGY DEDUCTION OF GAS LAWS FROM THE KINETIC GAS EQUATION DEDUCTION OF GAS LAWS FROM THE KINETIC GAS EQUATION DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR VELOCITIES Figure 10.20 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VELOCITIES CALCULATION OF MOLECULAR VELOCITIES COLLISION PROPERTIES Figure 10.21 Figure 10.22 SPECIFIC HEAT RATIO OF GASES DEVIATIONS FROM IDEAL BEHAVIOUR Figure 10.23 Figure 10.24 EXPLANATION OF DEVIATIONS – VAN DER WAALS EQUATION Figure 10.25 Figure 10.26 Figure 10.27 VAN DER WAALS EQUATION Figure 10.28 LIQUEFACTION OF GASES – CRITICAL PHENOMENON Figure 10.29 Figure 10.30 Figure 10.31 Figure 10.32 Figure 10.33 LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATES METHODS OF LIQUEFACTION OF GASES FARADAY’S METHOD Figure 10.34 Figure 10.35 LINDE’S METHOD CLAUDE’S METHOD Figure 10.36 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 11: Liquid State INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN LIQUIDS Figure 11.1 DIPOLE–DIPOLE ATTRACTIONS Figure 11.2 LONDON DISPERSION FORCES Figure 11.3 LONDON FORCES IN HYDROCARBONS AND ORGANIC MOLECULES Figure 11.4 HYDROGEN BONDING Figure 11.5 Figure 11.6 Figure 11.7 SUMMARY OF TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES VAPOUR PRESSURE Figure 11.8 Figure 11.9 Figure 11.10 Figure 11.11 Figure 11.12 SURFACE TENSION Figure 11.13 Figure 11.14 Figure 11.15 Figure 11.16 Figure 11.17 Figure 11.18 Figure 11.19 Figure 11.20 Figure 11.21 VISCOSITY Figure 11.22 Figure 11.23 Figure 11.24 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON VISCOSITY OF A LIQUID Figure 11.25 REFRACTIVE INDEX Figure 11.26 SPECIFIC REFRACTION MOLAR REFRACTION Figure 11.27 OPTICAL ACTIVITY Figure 11.28 Figure 11.29 SPECIFIC ROTATION Figure 11.30 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 12: Solid State TYPES OF SOLIDS Figure 12.1 ISOTROPY AND ANISOTROPY Figure 12.2 THE HABIT OF A CRYSTAL Figure 12.3 Figure 12.4 SYMMETRY OF CRYSTALS Figure 12.5 MILLER INDICES Figure 12.6 Figure 12.7 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE Figure 12.8 Figure 12.9 Figure 12.10 CUBIC UNIT CELLS Figure 12.11 Figure 12.12 X–RAY CRYSTALLOGRAPHY Figure 12.13 BRAGG’S EQUATION DERIVATION OF BRAGG EQUATION Figure 12.14 MEASUREMENT OF DIFFRACTION ANGLE Figure 12.15 Figure 12.16 Figure 12.17 CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALS ON THE BASIS OF BONDS IONIC CRYSTALS Figure 12.18 Figure 12.19 Figure 12.20 Figure 12.21 MOLECULAR CRYSTALS Figure 12.22 NETWORK COVALENT CRYSTALS Figure 12.23 METALLIC CRYSTALS Figure 12.24 Figure 12.25 STRUCTURE OF METAL CRYSTALS Figure 12.26 Figure 12.27 Figure 12.28 CRYSTAL DEFECTS Figure 12.29 METAL ALLOYS Figure 12.30 SEMICONDUCTORS Figure 12.31 SOLAR CELL Figure 12.32 WHAT ARE LIQUID CRYSTALS ? Figure 12.33 APPLICATIONS OF LIQUID CRYSTALS Figure 12.34 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 13: Physical Properties and Chemical Constitution (1) Additive Property (2) Constitutive Property (3) Additive and Constitutive Property SURFACE TENSION AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION VISCOSITY AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION DIPOLE MOMENT Figure 13.1 Figure 13.2 BOND MOMENT DIPOLE MOMENT AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE Figure 13.3 Figure 13.4 MOLAR REFRACTION AND CONSTITUTION OPTICAL ACTIVITY AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION Figure 13.5 Figure 13.6 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES Figure 13.7 Figure 13.8 Figure 13.9 MOLECULAR SPECTRA ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM Figure 13.100 Figure 13.11 MOLECULAR ENERGY LEVELS Figure 13.12 Figure 13.13 Figure 13.14 Figure 13.15 ABSORPTION SPECTROPHOTOMETER Figure 13.16 TYPES OF MOLECULAR SPECTRA Figure 13.17 ROTATIONAL SPECTRA VIBRATIONAL SPECTRA Figure 13.18 Figure 13.19 INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY Figure 13.20 Figure 13.21 Figure 13.22 ULTRAVIOLET–VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY Figure 13.23 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE (NMR) SPECTROSCOPY Figure 13.24 Figure 13.25 Figure 13.26 Figure 13.27 IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN NMR SPECTROSCOPY MASS SPECTROSCOPY Figure 13.28 Figure 13.29 RAMAN SPECTRA Figure 13.30 Figure 13.31 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 14: Solutions CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION Figure 14.1 TYPES OF SOLUTIONS WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION MOLE FRACTION MOLARITY MOLALITY NORMALITY SOLUTIONS OF GASES IN GASES HENRY’S LAW Figure 14.2 SOLUTIONS OF LIQUIDS IN LIQUIDS SOLUBILITY OF COMPLETELY MISCIBLE LIQUIDS SOLUBILITY OF PARTIALLY MISCIBLE LIQUIDS PHENOL–WATER SYSTEM Figure 14.3 TRIETHYLAMINE–WATER SYSTEM NICOTINE–WATER SYSTEM Figure 14.4 VAPOUR PRESSURES OF LIQUID–LIQUID SOLUTIONS Figure 14.5 Figure 14.6 Figure 14.7 Figure 14.8 Figure 14.9 VAPOUR PRESSURE OF MIXTURES OF NON–MISCIBLE LIQUIDS Figure 14.10 STEAM DISTILLATION Figure 14.11 SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS Figure 14.12 SOLUBILITY–ITS EQUILIBRIUM CONCEPT Figure 14.13 DETERMINATION OF SOLUBILITY SOLUBILITY CURVES Figure 14.14 SOLUBILITY OF SOLIDS IN SOLIDS Figure 14.15 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 15: Theory of Dilute Solutions COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE : RAOULT’S LAW Figure 15.1 Figure 15.2 MEASUREMENT OF LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE Figure 15.3 Figure 15.4 ELEVATION OF BOILING POINT Figure 15.5 MEASUREMENT OF BOILING–POINT ELEVATION Figure 15.6 Figure 15.7 FREEZING–POINT DEPRESSION Figure 15.8 MEASUREMENT OF FREEZING–POINTDEPRESSION Figure 15.9 Figure 15.10 Figure 15.11 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF ELECTROLYTES ABNORMAL MOLECULAR MASSES OF ELECTROLYTES CONCEPT OF ACTIVITY AND ACTIVITY COEFFICIENT Figure 15.12 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 16: Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS Figure 16.1 WHAT IS OSMOSIS? Figure 16.2 Figure 16.3 SOME INTERESTING EXPERIMENTS DEMONSTRATING OSMOSIS Figure 16.4 Figure 16.5 SEMIPERMEABLE MEMBRANES Figure 16.6 Figure 16.7 Figure 16.8 WHAT IS OSMOTIC PRESSURE? Figure 16.9 Figure 16.10 DETERMINATION OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE Figure 16.11 Figure 16.12 Figure 16.13 ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS Figure 16.14 THEORIES OF OSMOSIS Figure 16.15 Figure 16.16 REVERSE OSMOSIS Figure 16.17 Figure 16.18 LAWS OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE VAN’T HOFF THEORY OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS Figure 16.19 Figure 16.20 CALCULATION OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR WEIGHT FROM OSMOTIC PRESSURE RELATION BETWEEN VAPOUR PRESSURE AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE Figure 16.21 DERIVATION OF RAOULT’S LAW OSMOTIC PRESSURE OF ELECTROLYTES EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 17: Chemical Equilibrium REVERSIBLE REACTIONS NATURE OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM : ITS DEFINITION Figure 17.1 Figure 17.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM Figure 17.3 Figure 17.4 Figure 17.5 LAW OF MASS ACTION Figure 17.6 Figure 17.7 EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT : EQUILIBRIUM LAW Figure 17.8 EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT EXPRESSION IN TERMS OF PARTIAL PRESSURES HOW Kc AND Kp ARE RELATED? CALCULATIONS INVOLVING Kp UNITS OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT Figure 17.9 LIQUID SYSTEMS HETEROGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA Figure 17.10 LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE EFFECT OF A CHANGE IN CONCENTRATION Figure 17.11 EFFECT OF A CHANGE IN PRESSURE EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS FOR MAXIMUM YIELD IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES Figure 17.12 Figure 17.13 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 18: Distribution Law DISTRIBUTION LAW Figure 18.1 STATEMENT OF NERNST’S DISTRIBUTION LAW SOLUBILITIES AND DISTRIBUTION LAW EXPLANATION OF DISTRIBUTION LAW Figure 18.2 LIMITATIONS OF DISTRIBUTION LAW HOW IS DISTRIBUTION LAW MODIFIED BY CHANGE IN MOLECULAR STATE Figure 18.3 Figure 18.4 HENRY’S LAW – A FORM OF DISTRIBUTION LAW Figure 18.5 Figure 18.6 DETERMINATION OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT FROM DISTRIBUTION COEFFICIENT Figure 18.7 STUDY OF COMPLEX IONS Figure 18.8 EXTRACTION WITH A SOLVENT MULTIPLE EXTRACTION Figure 18.9 WHY MULTIPLE EXTRACTION IS MORE EFFICIENT? LIQUID–LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY (Partition Chromatography) APPLICATIONS OF DISTRIBUTION LAW Figure 18.10 Figure 18.11 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 19: Phase Rule THE STATEMENT WHAT IS MEANT BY A ‘PHASE’ ? WHAT IS MEANT BY ‘COMPONENTS’? DEGREES OF FREEDOM DERIVATION OF THE PHASE RULE ONE–COMPONENT SYSTEM PHASE DIAGRAMS Figure 19.1 POLYMORPHISM EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF TRANSITION POINT Figure 19.2 THE WATER SYSTEM Figure 19.3 THE SULPHUR SYSTEM Figure 19.4 TWO–COMPONENT SYSTEMS Figure 19.5 THE SILVER–LEAD SYSTEM Figure 19.6 THE ZINC–CADMIUM SYSTEM Figure 19.7 POTASSIUM IODIDE–WATER SYSTEM Figure 19.8 Cooling Produced by Freezing Mixtures Figure 19.9 THE MAGNESIUM–ZINC SYSTEM Figure 19.10 THE FERRIC CHLORIDE–WATER SYSTEM Figure 19.11 THE SODIUM SULPHATE–WATER SYSTEM Figure 19.12 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 20: Chemical Kinetics REACTION RATE UNITS OF RATE Figure 20.1 Figure 20.2 RATE LAWS ZERO ORDER REACTION MOLECULARITY OF A REACTION Figure 20.3 MOLECULARITY VERSUS ORDER OF REACTION PSEUDO–ORDER REACTIONS ZERO ORDER REACTIONS FIRST ORDER REACTIONS Figure 20.4 SECOND ORDER REACTIONS THIRD ORDER REACTIONS UNITS OF RATE CONSTANT HALF–LIFE OF A REACTION Figure 20.5 Figure 20.6 HOW TO DETERMINE THE ORDER OF A REACTION Figure 20.7 Figure 20.8 COLLISION THEORY OF REACTION RATES Figure 20.9 Figure 20.10 EFFECT OF INCREASE OF TEMPERATURE ON REACTION RATE Figure 20.11 SIMULTANEOUS REACTIONS Figure 20.12 TRANSITION STATE THEORY Figure 20.13 Figure 20.14 ACTIVATION ENERGY AND CATALYSIS LINDEMAN’S THEORY OF UNIMOLECULAR REACTIONS EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 21: Catalysis TYPES OF CATALYSIS HOMOGENEOUS CATALYSIS HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS CHARACTERISTICS OF CATALYTIC REACTIONS Figure 21.1 PROMOTERS Figure 21.2 CATALYTIC POISONING Figure 21.3 AUTOCATALYSIS Figure 21.4 NEGATIVE CATALYSIS ACTIVATION ENERGY AND CATALYSIS Figure 21.5 Figure 21.6 THEORIES OF CATALYSIS Figure 21.7 HYDROGENATION OF ETHENE (ETHYLENE) IN PRESENCE OF NICKEL Figure 21.8 Figure 21.9 Figure 21.10 ACID–BASE CATALYSIS ENZYME CATALYSIS MECHANISM OF ENZYME CATALYSIS Figure 21.11 CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYME CATALYSIS Figure 21.12 Figure 21.13 Figure 21.14 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 22: Colloids WHAT ARE COLLOIDS ? Figure 22.1 Figure 22.2 TYPES OF COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS Figure 22.3 LYOPHILIC AND LYOPHOBIC SOLS OR COLLOIDS CHARACTERISTICS OF LYOPHILIC AND LYOPHOBIC SOLS COMPARISON OF LYOPHILIC AND LYOPHOBIC SOLS PREPARATION OF SOLS DISPERSION METHODS Figure 22.4 Figure 22.5 Figure 22.6 AGGREGATION METHODS PURIFICATION OF SOLS Figure 22.7 Figure 22.8 Figure 22.9 PROPERTIES OF SOLS–THEIR COLOUR OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLS Figure 22.10 Figure 22.11 Figure 22.12 KINETIC PROPERTIES OF SOLS Figure 22.13 Figure 22.14 Figure 22.15 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLS Figure 22.16 Figure 22.17 Figure 22.18 Figure 22.19 Figure 22.20 Figure 22.21 Figure 22.22 Figure 22.23 Figure 22.24 STABILITY OF SOLS Figure 22.25 ASSOCIATED COLLOIDS Figure 22.26 EMULSIONS Figure 22.27 Figure 22.28 WHAT ARE GELS ? Figure 22.29 APPLICATIONS OF COLLOIDS Figure 22.30 Figure 22.31 Figure 22.32 Figure 22.33 WHAT ARE MACROMOLECULES ? DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR WEIGHTS OF MACROMOLECULES Figure 22.34 Figure 22.35 Figure 22.36 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 23: Adsorption Figure 23.1 Figure 23.2 Figure 23.3 Figure 23.4 TYPES OF ADSORPTION Figure 23.5 ADSORPTION OF GASES BY SOLIDS COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL ADSORPTION AND CHEMISORPTION ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS Figure 23.6 Figure 23.7 LANGMUIR ADSORPTION ISOTHERM Figure 23.8 Figure 23.9 ADSORPTION OF SOLUTES FROM SOLUTIONS Figure 23.10 APPLICATIONS OF ADSORPTION Figure 23.11 ION–EXCHANGE ADSORPTION Figure 23.12 APPLICATIONS OF ION–EXCHANGE ADSORPTION Figure 23.13 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 24: Electrolysis and Electrical Conductance MECHANISM OF ELECTROLYSIS Figure 24.1 ELECTRICAL UNITS FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS Figure 24.2 CONDUCTANCE OF ELECTROLYTES Figure 24.3 Figure 24.4 Figure 24.5 STRONG AND WEAK ELECTROLYTES Figure 24.6 Figure 24.7 Figure 24.8 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 25: Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation ARRHENIUS THEORY OF IONISATION MIGRATION OF IONS Figure 25.1 Figure 25.2 Figure 25.3 RELATIVE SPEED OF IONS Figure 25.4 Figure 25.5 WHAT IS TRANSPORT NUMBER ? DETERMINATION OF TRANSPORT NUMBER Figure 25.6 Figure 25.7 Figure 25.8 KOHLRAUSCH’S LAW CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATIONS Figure 25.9 Figure 25.10 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONDUCTOMETRIC AND VOLUMETRIC TITRATIONS EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 26: Ionic Equilibria–Solubility Product OSTWALD’S DILUTION LAW THEORY OF STRONG ELECTROLYTES Figure 26.1 Figure 26.2 Figure 26.3 DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION THE COMMON–ION EFFECT FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE DEGREE OF DISSOCIATION SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA AND THE SOLUBILITY PRODUCT Figure 26.4 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS APPLICATION OF SOLUBILITY PRODUCT PRINCIPLE IN QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS SELECTIVE PRECIPITATION Figure 26.5 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 27: Acids and Bases ARRHENIUS CONCEPT Figure 27.1 BRONSTED–LOWRY CONCEPT Figure 27.2 Figure 27.3 Figure 27.4 Figure 27.5 Figure 27.6 LEWIS CONCEPT OF ACIDS AND BASES Figure 27.7 RELATIVE STRENGTH OF ACIDS Figure 27.8 RELATIVE STRENGTH OF BASES THE pH OF SOLUTIONS Figure 27.9 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS BASED ON pH Figure 27.10 WHAT IS A BUFFER SOLUTION ? Figure 27.11 Figure 27.12 HOW A BUFFER OPERATES ? Figure 27.13 Figure 27.14 CALCULATION OF THE pH OF BUFFER SOLUTIONS NUMERICAL PROBLEMS BASED ON BUFFERS ACID–BASE INDICATORS Figure 27.15 Figure 27.16 CHOICE OF A SUITABLE INDICATOR Figure 27.17 THEORIES OF ACID-BASE INDICATORS EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 28: Salt Hydrolysis WHAT IS HYDROLYSIS? BRONSTED–LOWRY CONCEPT OF HYDROLYSIS EXAMPLES OF HYDROLYSIS QUANTITATIVE ASPECT OF HYDROLYSIS DETERMINATION OF DEGREE OF HYDROLYSIS EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 29: Electromotive Force WHAT ARE HALF REACTIONS ? ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS Figure 29.1 Figure 29.2 Figure 29.3 Figure 29.4 Figure 29.5 MEASUREMENT OF EMF OF A CELL Figure 29.6 WESTON STANDARD CELL Figure 29.7 REVERSIBLE CELLS Figure 29.8 RELATION BETWEEN EMF AND FREE ENERGY Figure 29.9 Figure 29.10 Figure 29.11 USING STANDARD POTENTIALS Figure 29.12 THE NERNST EQUATION OTHER REFERENCE ELECTRODES Figure 29.13 Figure 29.14 Figure 29.15 Figure 29.16 Figure 29.17 DETERMINATION OF pH OF A SOLUTION Figure 29.18 Figure 29.19 Figure 29.20 Figure 29.21 POTENTIOMETRIC TITRATIONS Figure 29.22 Figure 29.23 Figure 29.24 Figure 29.25 Figure 29.26 Figure 29.27 Figure 29.28 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 30: Photochemistry PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS Figure 30.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHOTOCHEMICAL AND THERMOCHEMICAL REACTIONS LIGHT ABSORPTION Figure 30.2 DETERMINATION OF ABSORBED INTENSITY Figure 30.3 Figure 30.4 Figure 30.5 LAWS OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY Figure 30.6 CALCULATION OF QUANTUM YIELD PHOTOSENSITIZED REACTIONS PHOTOPHYSICAL PROCESSES Figure 30.7 Figure 30.8 Figure 30.9 Figure 30.10 Figure 30.11 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 31: SI Units COMMON SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENTS SI UNITS OF LENGTH SI UNITS OF VOLUME Figure 31.1 SI UNIT OF TEMPERATURE Figure 31.2 UNITS OF MASS AND WEIGHT UNITS OF FORCE UNITS OF WORK AND HEAT ENERGY UNITS OF PRESSURE UNITS OF DENSITY 32: Mathematical Concepts LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS CHARACTERISTIC AND MANTISSA ANTILOGARITHM EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS DISPLACEMENT–TIME GRAPHS Figure 32.1 Figure 32.2 Figure 32.3 Figure 32.4 Figure 32.5 Figure 32.6 VELOCITY–TIME GRAPHS Figure 32.7 Figure 32.8 Figure 32.9 Figure 32.10 Figure 32.11 Figure 32.12 Figure 32.13 Figure 32.14 SLOPE OF A LINE Figure 32.15 Figure 32.16 Figure 32.17 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS DIFFERENTIATION PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION MAXIMA AND MINIMA Figure 32.18 INTEGRATION PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS PROBABILITY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 33: Introduction To Computers CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS TYPES OF COMPUTERS EV0LUTION OF COMPUTERS PARTS OF A COMPUTER INPUT DEVICES (1) Keyboard (2) Mouse (Manually Operated Utility Selection Equipment) (3) Joystick (4) Light Pen (5) Digitizer (6) Touch Screen (7) Digital Camera (8) Web Camera (9) Voice Input Devices (10) Scanners (11) Optical Mark Reader (OMR) (12) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) (13) Bar Code Reader OUTPUT DEVICES (1) Printer (2) Monitor or Visual Display Unit (VDU) (3) Computer Output on Microfilm (COM) and Microfilche (4) Audio Response Unit (ARU) MEMORY UNIT Units of Memory Types of Memory SECONDARY MEMORY/STORAGE DEVICES (1) Magnetic Tape (2) Magnetic Disk (3) Hard Disk (4) Floppy Disk (5) Zip Disk (6) CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory) (7) DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disk - Read Only Memory) (8) Memory Sticks HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE Popular Operating Systems Problem Solving in Computer Algorithm Flow Chart Program Programming Languages NUMBER SYSTEM EXAMINATION QUESTIONS MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS Appendix Physical Constants Conversion Factors Dissociation constantsof acids at 25ºC Index A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Z TrUe LiAr