Environmental Chemistry

Description

With clear explanations, real-world examples and updated ancillary material, the 11th edition of Environmental Chemistry emphasizes the concepts essential to the practice of environmental science, technology and chemistry. The format and organization popular in preceding editions is used, including an approach based upon the five environmental spheres and the relationship of environmental chemistry to the key concepts of sustainability, industrial ecology and green chemistry. The new edition provides a comprehensive view of key environmental issues, and significantly looks at diseases and pandemics as an environmental problem influenced by other environmental concerns like climate change. Features: The most trusted and best-selling text for environmental chemistry has been fully updated and expanded once again The author has preserved the basic format with appropriate updates including a comprehensive overview of key environmental issues and concerns New to this important text is material on the threat of pathogens and disease, deadly past pandemics that killed millions, recently emerged diseases and the prospects for more environment threats related to disease This outstanding legacy appeals to a wide audience and can also be an ideal interdisciplinary book for graduate students with degrees in a variety of disciplines other than chemistry Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Dedication Contents Preface Acknowledgments About the Author Chapter 1: Environmental Chemistry: An Essential Discipline in Coping with Challenges Facing Humankind 1.1. A Catastrophic Year for Earth and Humankind 1.2. Earth and the Earth System 1.3. Biogeochemical Cycles in the Earth System 1.3.1. Oxygen Cycle 1.3.2. Nitrogen Cycle 1.3.3. Sulfur Cycle 1.3.4. Phosphorus Cycle 1.4. Natural Capital of the Earth System 1.5. What is Environmental Chemistry? 1.5.1. Environmental Chemistry and the Spheres of the Earth System 1.6. Environmental Chemistry of Water and the Hydrosphere 1.7. Environmental Chemistry of Air and the Atmosphere 1.8. Environmental Chemistry of the Geosphere 1.8.1. Soil 1.9. Environmental Chemistry of the Anthrosphere 1.10. Environmental Chemistry of the Biosphere 1.11. Toxicological Chemistry and Biochemistry 1.12. As We Enter the Anthropocene 1.13. Special Challenges to Environmental Chemistry as Global Climate Change Becomes Reality References Further Reading Chapter 2: The Hydrosphere and Water Chemistry 2.1. Water: An Essential Part of Earth’s Natural Capital 2.2. Sources and Uses of Water 2.2.1. The Groundwater Crisis 2.3. H2O: Simple Formula, Remarkable Molecule 2.4. Life in Water 2.5. Chemistry of Water 2.6. Gases in Water 2.6.1. Oxygen in Water 2.7. Water Acidity and Carbon Dioxide in Water 2.7.1. Carbon Dioxide in Water 2.8. Alkalinity 2.8.1. Contributors to Alkalinity at Different pH Values 2.8.2. Dissolved Inorganic Carbon and Alkalinity 2.8.3. Influence of Alkalinity on CO2 Solubility 2.9. Calcium and Other Metals in Water 2.9.1. Hydrated Metal Ions as Acids 2.9.2. Calcium in Water 2.9.3. Dissolved Carbon Dioxide and Calcium Carbonate Minerals 2.10. Complexation and Chelation 2.10.1. Occurrence and Importance of Chelating Agents in Water 2.11. Bonding and Structure of Metal Complexes 2.11.1. Selectivity and Specificity in Chelation 2.12. Calculations of Species Concentrations 2.13. Complexation by Deprotonated Ligands 2.14. Complexation by Protonated Ligands 2.15. Solubilization of Lead Ion from Solids by NTA 2.15.1. Reaction of NTA with Metal Carbonate 2.15.2. Effect of Calcium Ion on the Reaction of Chelating Agents with Slightly Soluble Salts 2.16. Polyphosphates And Phosphonates In Water 2.16.1. Polyphosphates 2.16.2. Hydrolysis of Polyphosphates 2.16.3. Complexation by Polyphosphates 2.16.4. Phosphonates 2.17. Complexation by Humic Substances 2.18. Complexation and Redox Processes References Further Readings Chapter 3: Oxidation/Reduction in Aquatic Chemistry 3.1. The Significance of Oxidation/Reduction in Aquatic Chemistry 3.2. The Electron and Redox Reactions 3.3. Electron Activity and pE 3.4. The Nernst Equation 3.5. Reaction Tendency: Whole Reaction from Half-Reactions 3.6. The Nernst Equation and Chemical Equilibrium 3.7. The Relationship of pE to Free Energy 3.8. Reactions in Terms of One Electron-Mole 3.9. The Limits of pE in Water 3.10. pE Values in Natural Water Systems 3.11. pE–pH Diagrams 3.12. Humic Substances as Natural Reductants 3.13. Photochemical Processes in Oxidation/Reduction 3.14. Corrosion References Further Readings Chapter 4: Phase Interactions in Aquatic Chemistry 4.1. Chemical Interactions Involving Solids, Gases, and Water 4.2. Importance and Formation of Sediments 4.2.1. Formation of Sediments 4.2.2. Organic and Carbonaceous Sedimentary Materials 4.3. Solubilities 4.3.1. Solubilities of Solids 4.3.2. Solubilities of Gases 4.4. Colloidal Particles in Water 4.4.1. Colloids in Water and Contaminant Transport by Colloids 4.4.2. Kinds of Colloidal Particles 4.4.3. Colloid Stability 4.5. The Colloidal Properties of Clays 4.6. Aggregation of Colloidal Particles 4.6.1. Flocculation of Colloids by Polyelectrolytes 4.6.2. Flocculation of Bacteria by Polymeric Materials 4.7. Surface Sorption by Solids 4.8. Solute Exchange with Bottom Sediments 4.8.1. Trace-Level Metals in Suspended Matter and Sediments 4.8.2. Phosphorus Exchange with Bottom Sediments 4.8.3. Organic Compounds on Sediments and Suspended Matter 4.8.4. Bioavailability of Sediment Contaminants 4.9. Interstitial Water 4.10. Phase Interactions in Chemical Fate and Transport 4.10.1. Rivers 4.10.2. Lakes and Reservoirs 4.10.3. Exchange with the Atmosphere 4.10.4. Exchange with Sediments References Further Readings Chapter 5: Aquatic Microbial Biochemistry 5.1. Aquatic Biochemical Processes 5.1.1. Microorganisms at Interfaces 5.2. Algae 5.3. Fungi 5.4. Protozoa 5.5. Bacteria 5.5.1. Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Bacteria 5.5.2. Oxic and Anoxic Bacteria 5.6. The Prokaryotic Bacterial Cell 5.7. Kinetics of Bacterial Growth 5.8. Bacterial Metabolism 5.8.1. Factors Affecting Bacterial Metabolism 5.8.2. Microbial Oxidation and Reduction 5.9. Microbial Transformations of Carbon 5.9.1. Methane-Forming Bacteria 5.9.2. Bacterial Utilization of Hydrocarbons 5.9.3. Microbial Utilization of Carbon Monoxide 5.10. Biodegradation of Organic Matter 5.10.1. Oxidation 5.10.2. Microbial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons 5.10.3. Other Biochemical Processes in Biodegradation of Organics 5.11. Microbial Transformations of Nitrogen 5.11.1. Nitrogen Fixation 5.11.2. Nitrification 5.11.3. Nitrate Reduction 5.11.4. Denitrification 5.12. Microbial Transformations of Phosphorus and Sulfur 5.12.1. Phosphorus Compounds 5.12.2. Sulfur Compounds 5.12.3. Oxidation of H2S and Reduction of Sulfate by Bacteria 5.12.4. Microorganism-Mediated Degradation of Organic Sulfur Compounds 5.13. Microbial Transformations of Halogens and Organohalides 5.14. Microbial Transformations of Metals and Metalloids 5.14.1. Acid Mine Waters 5.14.2. Microbial Transitions of Selenium 5.14.3. Microbial Corrosion References Further Readings Chapter 6: Water Pollutants and Water Pollution 6.1. Nature and Types of Water Pollutants 6.1.1. Markers of Water Pollution 6.2. Elemental Pollutants 6.3. Heavy Metals 6.3.1. Cadmium 6.3.2. Lead 6.3.3. Mercury 6.4. Metalloids 6.5. Organically Bound Metals and Metalloids 6.5.1. Organotin Compounds 6.6. Inorganic Species 6.6.1. Cyanide 6.6.2. Ammonia and Other Inorganic Pollutants 6.6.3. Asbestos in Water 6.7. Algal Nutrients and Eutrophication 6.8. Acidity, Alkalinity, and Salinity 6.9. Oxygen, Oxidants, and Reductants 6.10. Organic Pollutants 6.10.1. Bioaccumulation of Organic Pollutants 6.10.2. Sewage 6.10.3. Soaps, Detergents, and Detergent Builders 6.10.3.1. Soaps 6.10.3.2. Detergents 6.10.3.3. Microbial Toxins 6.11. Pesticides in Water 6.11.1. Natural Product Insecticides, Pyrethrins, and Pyrethroids 6.11.2. The Emergence of Neonicotinoid Insecticides 6.11.3. DDT and Organochlorine Insecticides 6.11.4. Organophosphate Insecticides 6.11.5. Carbamates 6.11.6. Fungicides 6.11.7. Herbicides 6.11.8. Bipyridylium Compounds 6.11.9. Herbicidal Heterocyclic Nitrogen Compounds 6.11.10. Chlorophenoxy Herbicides 6.11.11. Miscellaneous Herbicides 6.12. Organochlorine Compounds in Water 6.12.1. By-Products of Pesticide Manufacture 6.12.2. Polychlorinated Biphenyls 6.12.3. 1,2,3-Trichloropropane in Groundwater 6.12.4. Naturally Occurring Chlorinated and Brominated Compounds 6.13. Emerging Water Pollutants, Pharmaceuticals, and Household Wastes 6.13.1. Bactericides and Antibiotics 6.13.2. Estrogenic Substances in Wastewater Effluents 6.13.3. Biorefractory Organic Pollutants 6.14. Radionuclides in the Aquatic Environment References Further Readings Chapter 7: World Water Crisis and Climate Change: Water Renovation and Recycling 7.1. The Most Important Body of Water—You 7.2. Water Treatment and Water Use 7.3. Municipal Water Treatment 7.3.1. Failures in Water Treatment 7.4. Treatment of Water for Industrial and Commercial Use 7.5. Wastewater Treatment 7.5.1. Industrial Wastewater Treatment 7.6. Advanced Water Treatment 7.7. Aeration of Water 7.8. Removal of Solids 7.8.1. Dissolved Air Flotation 7.8.2. Membrane Filtration Processes 7.9. Removal of Calcium and Other Metals 7.9.1. Removal of Iron and Manganese 7.9.2. Removal of Heavy Metals from Water 7.10. Removal of Biodegradable Organics from Water and Sewage Treatment 7.10.1. Biodegradable Organics Removal from Wastewater 7.10.2. Membrane Bioreactor 7.10.3. Sludge Handling and Disposal 7.10.4. Chemical Sludges 7.10.5. Additional Purification of Water from Secondary Wastewater Treatment 7.11. Removal of Dissolved Organics 7.11.1. Removal of Herbicides 7.12. Removal of Dissolved Inorganics 7.12.1. Ion Exchange 7.12.2. Reverse Osmosis 7.12.3. Phosphorus Removal 7.12.4. Nitrogen Removal 7.13. Water Disinfection 7.13.1. Chlorine Dioxide 7.13.2. Green Ozone for Water Disinfection 7.13.3. Ferrate and Percarbonate 7.13.4. Disinfection with Ultraviolet Radiation and Photocatalytic Processes 7.13.5. Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water Treatment 7.14. Natural Water Purification Processes 7.14.1. Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Soil 7.15. Green Water and Total Water Recycle 7.16. Water Conservation 7.17. Protecting Water Supplies from Attack References Further Readings Chapter 8: The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Chemistry 8.1. The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Chemistry 8.1.1. Atmospheric Composition 8.1.2. Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur 8.1.3. Atmospheric Methane, Hydrocarbons, and Photochemical Smog 8.1.4. Particulate Matter 8.1.5. Primary and Secondary Pollutants 8.2. How the Atmosphere Got That Way and its Natural Capital 8.2.1. Chemical and Biochemical Processes in Evolution of the Atmosphere 8.2.2. Self-Purification of the Atmosphere 8.3. Physical Characteristics of the Atmosphere 8.3.1. Variation of Pressure and Density with Altitude 8.3.2. Stratification of the Atmosphere 8.4. Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere 8.4.1. The Earth’s Radiation Budget 8.5. Atmospheric Mass Transfer, Meteorology, and Weather 8.5.1. Atmospheric Water in Energy and Mass Transfer 8.5.2. Air Masses 8.5.3. Topographical Effects 8.5.4. Movement of Air Masses 8.5.5. Global Weather 8.5.6. Weather Fronts and Storms 8.6. Inversions and Air Pollution 8.7. Global Climate and Microclimate 8.7.1. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Human Modifications of Climate 8.7.2. Microclimate 8.7.3. Effects of Urbanization on Microclimate 8.8. Chemical and Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere 8.8.1. Photochemical Processes 8.8.2. Ions and Radicals in the Atmosphere 8.8.3. Ions at Lower Altitudes in the Troposphere 8.8.4. Free Radicals 8.8.5. Hydroxyl and Hydroperoxyl Radicals in the Atmosphere 8.9. Acid–Base Reactions in the Atmosphere 8.10. Reactions of Atmospheric Oxygen 8.10.1. Tropospheric Ozone in the Unpolluted Atmosphere 8.11. Reactions of Atmospheric Nitrogen 8.12. Atmospheric Water 8.13. Influence of the Anthrosphere 8.14. Metals from Meteoroids in the Mesosphere 8.15. Chemical Fate and Transport in the Atmosphere References Further Readings Chapter 9: Particles in the Atmosphere 9.1. Particles in the Atmosphere 9.2. Physical Behavior of Particles in the Atmosphere 9.2.1. Size and Settling of Atmospheric Particles 9.3. Physical Processes for Particle Formation 9.4. Chemical Processes for Particle Formation 9.4.1. Inorganic Particles 9.4.2. Organic Particles 9.5. The Composition of Inorganic Particles 9.5.1. Fly Ash 9.5.2. Asbestos 9.6. Toxic Metals in the Atmosphere 9.6.1. Atmospheric Mercury 9.6.2. Atmospheric Lead 9.6.3. Atmospheric Beryllium 9.7. Radioactive Particles 9.8. Organic Particles in the Atmosphere 9.8.1. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 9.8.2. Carbonaceous Particles from Diesel Engines 9.9. Effects of Particles 9.9.1. The Asian Brown Cloud: Climate and Health Effects 9.9.2. Partitioning of Semivolatile Organic Substances between Air and Particles 9.10. Water as Particulate Matter 9.11. Atmospheric Chemical Reactions Involving Particles 9.12. Control of Particle Emissions 9.12.1. Particle Removal by Sedimentation and Inertia 9.12.2. Particle Filtration 9.12.3. Scrubbers 9.12.4. Electrostatic Removal References Further Readings Chapter 10: Gaseous Inorganic Air Pollutants 10.1. Inorganic Pollutant Gases 10.2. Production and Control of Carbon Monoxide 10.2.1. Control of Carbon Monoxide Emissions 10.3. Fate of Atmospheric Co 10.4. Sulfur Dioxide Sources and the Sulfur Cycle 10.5. Sulfur Dioxide Reactions in the Atmosphere 10.5.1. Effects of Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide 10.5.2. Sulfur Dioxide Removal 10.5.3. Oxy-Fuel Combustion for Sulfur Dioxide and Carbon Dioxide Recovery 10.6. Nitrogen Oxides in the Atmosphere 10.6.1. Atmospheric Reactions of NOx 10.6.2. Harmful Effects of Nitrogen Oxides 10.6.3. Control of Nitrogen Oxides 10.6.4. Limiting Production and Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides 10.6.5. Removal of Nitrogen Oxides from Stack Gas and Engine Exhaust Gases 10.7. Acid Rain 10.8. Ammonia in the Atmosphere 10.9. Fluorine, Chlorine, and their Gaseous Compounds 10.9.1. Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride 10.9.2. Hydrogen Chloride in the Atmosphere 10.10. Reduced Sulfur Gases References Further Readings Chapter 11: Organic Air Pollutants 11.1. Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere 11.1.1. Loss of Organic Substances from the Atmosphere 11.1.2. Persistent Organic Pollutants 11.1.3. Global Distillation and Fractionation of POPs 11.2. Biogenic Organic Compounds 11.2.1. Biogenic Methane 11.2.2. Biogenic Hydrocarbons from Plants 11.2.3. Removal of Atmospheric Organic Compounds by Plants 11.3. Pollutant Hydrocarbons 11.3.1. Aromatic Hydrocarbons 11.3.2. Reactions of Atmospheric Aromatic Hydrocarbons 11.4. Carbonyl Compounds 11.5. Miscellaneous Oxygen-Containing Compounds 11.5.1. Alcohols 11.5.2. Phenols 11.5.3. Ethers 11.5.4. Oxides 11.5.5. Carboxylic Acids 11.6. Organonitrogen Compounds 11.7. Organohalide Compounds 11.7.1. CFCs and Halons 11.7.2. Atmospheric Reactions of Hydrofluorocarbons and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons 11.7.3. Perfluorocarbons 11.7.4. Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans 11.8. Organosulfur Compounds 11.9. Organic Particulate Matter 11.10. Hazardous Air Pollutant Organic Compounds References Further Readings Chapter 12: Photochemical Smog 12.1. Reduced Visibility When the Sun Shines 12.2. Smog-Forming Emissions 12.2.1. Control of Exhaust Hydrocarbons 12.2.2. Automotive Emission Standards 12.2.3. Polluting Green Plants 12.3. Smog-Forming Reactions of Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere 12.3.1. Photochemical Reactions of Methane 12.3.2. Addition Reactions in the Atmosphere 12.4. Overview of Smog Formation 12.5. Mechanisms of Smog Formation 12.5.1. Nitrate Radical 12.5.2. Photolyzable Compounds in the Atmosphere 12.6. Reactivity of Hydrocarbons 12.7. Importance of HOx/VOC Ratios 12.8. Inorganic Products from Smog 12.9. Effects of Smog References Further Readings Chapter 13: The Endangered Global Atmosphere 13.1. Saving the Atmosphere to Save Ourselves 13.1.1. Preservation of the Atmosphere’s Natural Capital 13.2. The Earth’s Evolving Atmosphere and Climate Change 13.2.1. Changes in Climate 13.3. Effects of the Anthrosphere on the Atmosphere and Climate 13.3.1. Destroying the Earth’s Lungs: Destruction of the Amazon Forest 13.4. The Greatest Threat to the Atmosphere and the Earth System: Global Warming 13.4.1. Methane and Other Greenhouse Gases 13.4.2. Particles and Global Warming 13.5. Consequences of Global Climate Change 13.5.1. Increasing Temperature 13.5.2. Passing the Tipping Points 13.5.3. Loss of Ice Cover 13.5.4. Glaciers and Water Supply 13.5.5. Expansion of Subtropical Arid Regions and Drought 13.5.6. Some Other Effects of Global Climate Change 13.6. Green Science and Technology to Alleviate Global Warming 13.6.1. Minimization 13.6.2. Counteracting Measures 13.6.3. Adaptation 13.7. Acid Rain 13.8. Stratospheric Ozone Destruction 13.8.1. Shielding Effect of the Ozone Layer 13.8.2. Ozone Layer Destruction 13.8.3. Green Chemistry Solutions to Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 13.9. Atmospheric Brown Clouds 13.9.1. Yellow Dust 13.10. Atmospheric Damage by Photochemical Smog 13.11. The Urban Aerosol 13.12. Nuclear Winter 13.12.1. “Doomsday Visitors” from Space 13.13. What Is to Be Done? References Further Readings Chapter 14: The Geosphere and Geochemistry 14.1. The Geosphere 14.1.1. The Fragile Solid Earth and its Relationship with the Other Environmental Spheres 14.2. Physical Form of the Geosphere 14.2.1. Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift 14.2.2. Structural Geology 14.3. The Nature of Solids in the Geosphere 14.3.1. Structure and Properties of Minerals 14.3.2. Kinds of Minerals 14.3.3. Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic Rock in the Rock Cycle 14.3.4. Rock Cycle 14.4. Geochemistry and Weathering of Rock in the Geosphere 14.4.1. Physical Aspects of Weathering 14.4.2. Chemical Weathering 14.4.3. Biological Aspects of Weathering 14.5. Clays: Especially Important Weathering Products and Secondary Minerals 14.6. Sediments 14.7. Groundwater in the Geosphere 14.7.1. Water Wells 14.7.2. Water Wells and the Arsenic Problem 14.8. The Geosphere as a Source of Natural Capital 14.8.1. The Extraordinary Importance of Lithium 14.9. Environmental Phenomena of the Geosphere 14.9.1. Natural Hazards 14.9.2. Anthropogenic Hazards 14.10. Volcanoes 14.11. Earthquakes 14.12. Surface Earth Movement 14.13. Effects of Human Activities 14.13.1. Extraction of Geospheric Resources: Surface Mining 14.13.2. Environmental Effects of Mining and Mineral Extraction 14.14. Air Pollution and the Geosphere 14.15. Water Pollution and the Geosphere 14.16. The Geosphere as a Waste Repository References Further Readings Chapter 15: Soil: Earth’s Lifeline 15.1. Have You Thanked A Clod Today? 15.1.1. What is Soil? 15.1.2. Agriculture and Soil 15.2. Structure of Soil 15.3. Composition of Soil 15.3.1. Water in Soil 15.3.2. The Soil Solution 15.3.3. Air in Soil 15.3.4. Inorganic Solids in Soil 15.3.5. Soil Organic Matter 15.4. Acid–Base and Ion-Exchange Reactions in Soil 15.4.1. Acid–Base Reactions of Soil 15.4.2. Adjustment of Soil Acidity 15.4.3. Ion-Exchange Equilibria in Soil 15.5. Macronutrients in Soil 15.5.1. Sulfur in Soil and as a Macronutrient 15.6. Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium in Soil 15.6.1. Nitrogen 15.6.2. Phosphorus 15.6.3. Potassium 15.7. Micronutrients in Soil 15.8. Fertilizers 15.8.1. Fertilizer Pollution 15.9. Pesticides and their Residues in Soil 15.9.1. Soil Fumigants 15.10. Wastes and Pollutants and their Degradation on Soil 15.10.1. Soil Pollutants from Livestock Production 15.10.2. Biodegradation and the Rhizosphere 15.11. Soil Loss and Degradation 15.11.1. Soil Sustainability and Water Resources 15.12. Saving the Land 15.12.1. Agroforestry 15.12.2. Soil Restoration 15.12.3. Poduculture in Soil Restoration 15.13. Green Chemistry and Sustainable Agriculture 15.14. Genetics and Agriculture 15.14.1. Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering in Agriculture 15.14.2. The Major Transgenic Crops and Their Characteristics 15.14.3. Crops versus Pests 15.14.4. Future Crops 15.15. Agriculture and Health 15.15.1. Food Contamination 15.16. Protecting the Food Supply from Attack References Further Readings Chapter 16: The Anthrosphere: Industrial Ecology and Green Chemistry 16.1. Changing the Bad Old Ways 16.2. Green Chemistry 16.3. Reduction of Risk: Hazard and Exposure 16.3.1. The Risks of Not Taking Risks 16.4. Waste Prevention and Green Chemistry 16.5. Green Chemistry and Synthetic Chemistry 16.5.1. Yield and Atom Economy 16.6. Feedstocks 16.6.1. Biological Feedstocks 16.7. Reagents 16.8. Stoichiometric and Catalytic Reagents 16.9. Media and Solvents 16.9.1. Water, the Greenest Solvent 16.9.2. Dense Phase Carbon Dioxide as a Solvent 16.9.3. Gas-Expanded Solvents 16.10. Enhancing Reactions 16.11. Industrial Ecology 16.12. The Five Major Components of an Industrial Ecosystem 16.13. Industrial Metabolism 16.14. The Kalundborg Industrial Ecosystem 16.15. Attributes of Successful Industrial Ecosystems 16.15.1. Diversity 16.16. Environmental Impacts in Industrial Ecology 16.17. Life Cycles: Expanding and Closing the Materials Loop 16.17.1. Product Stewardship 16.17.2. Embedded Utility 16.18. Design for Environment 16.18.1. Products, Processes, and Facilities 16.18.2. Key Factors in Design for Environment 16.18.3. Hazardous Materials in Design for Environment 16.19. Inherent Safety 16.19.1. Increased Safety with Smaller Size 16.20. Industrial Ecology and Ecological Engineering References Further Readings Chapter 17: Resources and Sustainable Materials 17.1. Where to Get the Stuff We Need? 17.2. Extraction of Materials from the Geosphere 17.3. Environmental Effects of Mining and Mineral Extraction 17.4. Sustainable Utilization of Geospheric Mineral Resources 17.4.1. Metals 17.5. Metal Resources and Industrial Ecology 17.5.1. Aluminum 17.5.2. Chromium 17.5.3. Copper 17.5.4. Cobalt 17.5.5. Lead 17.5.6. Lithium 17.5.7. Zinc 17.5.8. Rare Earths 17.6. Nonmetal Mineral Resources 17.7. Phosphates 17.8. Sulfur 17.8.1. Gypsum 17.9. Wood: An Abundant Renewable Resource 17.10. Extending Resources with Industrial Ecology 17.10.1. Metals 17.10.2. Plastics and Rubber 17.10.3. Lubricating Oil References Further Readings Chapter 18: Sustainable Energy: The Key to Everything 18.1. The Energy Problem 18.2. Nature Of Energy 18.3. Sustainable Energy: Away from the Sun and Back Again 18.3.1. The Brief Era of Fossil Fuels 18.3.2. Back to the Sun 18.4. Sources of Energy Used in the Anthrosphere: Present and Future 18.5. Energy Devices and Conversions 18.5.1. Fuel Cells 18.6. Energy Conservation and Renewable Energy Sources 18.6.1. Renewable Energy 18.6.2. Heavy Oil 18.6.3. Shale Oil 18.6.4. Natural Gas Liquids 18.7. Natural Gas 18.8. Coal 18.8.1. Coal Conversion 18.9. Carbon Sequestration for Fossil Fuel Utilization 18.10. The Great Plains Synfuels Plant: Industrial Ecology in Practice to Produce Energy and Chemicals 18.11. Nuclear Energy 18.11.1. Thorium-Fueled Reactors 18.11.2. Nuclear Fusion 18.12. Geothermal Energy 18.13. The Sun: An Ideal, Renewable Energy Source 18.13.1. Solar Photovoltaic Energy Systems 18.13.2. Artificial Photosynthesis for Capturing Solar Energy 18.14. Energy from the Earth’s Two Great Fluids in Motion 18.14.1. The Success of Wind Power 18.14.2. Energy from Moving Water 18.14.3. Energy from Moving Water without Dams 18.15. Biomass Energy: An Overview of Biofuels and their Resources 18.15.1. Processing of Biofuel to More Compact Forms 18.15.2. Decarbonization with Biomass Utilization 18.15.3. Conversion of Biomass to Other Fuels 18.15.4. Ethanol Fuel 18.15.5. Biodiesel Fuel 18.15.6. Fuel from Algae 18.15.7. The Potential of Lignocellulose Fuels 18.15.8. Chemical Conversion of Biomass to Synthetic Fuels 18.15.9. Biogas 18.15.10. Biorefineries and Utilizing Biomass for Energy 18.15.11. A System of Industrial Ecology for Methane Production from Renewable Sources 18.16. Hydrogen as a Means to Store and Utilize Energy 18.17. Combined Power Cycles References Further Readings Chapter 19: The Nature, Sources, and Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes 19.1. Introduction 19.1.1. History of Hazardous Substances 19.1.2. Legislation 19.2. Classification of Hazardous Substances and Wastes 19.2.1. Characteristics and Listed Wastes 19.2.2. Hazardous Wastes 19.2.3. Hazardous Wastes and Air and Water Pollution Control 19.3. Sources of Wastes 19.3.1. Types of Hazardous Wastes 19.3.2. Hazardous Waste Generators 19.4. Flammable and Combustible Substances 19.4.1. Combustion of Finely Divided Particles 19.4.2. Oxidizers 19.4.3. Spontaneous Ignition 19.4.4. Toxic Products of Combustion 19.5. Reactive Substances 19.5.1. Chemical Structure and Reactivity 19.6. Corrosive Substances 19.6.1. Sulfuric Acid 19.7. Toxic Substances 19.7.1. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure 19.8. Physical Forms and Segregation of Wastes 19.9. Environmental Chemistry of Hazardous Wastes 19.10. Physical and Chemical Properties of Hazardous Wastes 19.11. Transport, Effects, and Fates of Hazardous Wastes 19.11.1. Physical Properties of Wastes 19.11.2. Chemical Factors 19.11.3. Effects of Hazardous Wastes 19.11.4. Fates of hazardous wastes 19.12. Hazardous Wastes and the Anthrosphere 19.13. Hazardous Wastes in the Geosphere 19.14. Hazardous Wastes in the Hydrosphere 19.15. Hazardous Wastes in the Atmosphere 19.16. Hazardous Wastes in the Biosphere 19.16.1. Microbial Metabolism in Waste Degradation 19.16.2. Ecotoxicology of Hazardous Wastes 19.17. Hazardous Substances in Terrorism 19.17.1. Detection of Hazardous Substances 19.17.2. Removing Hazardous Agents References Further Readings Chapter 20: Industrial Ecology for Waste Minimization, Utilization, and Treatment 20.1. Introduction 20.2. Waste Reduction and Minimization 20.3. Recycling 20.3.1. Examples of Recycling 20.3.2. Waste Oil Utilization and Recovery 20.3.3. Waste Oil Fuel 20.3.4. Waste Solvent Recovery and Recycle 20.3.5. Recovery of Water from Wastewater 20.4. Physical Methods of Waste Treatment 20.4.1. Methods of Physical Treatment 20.4.2. Phase Separations 20.4.3. Phase Transition 20.4.4. Phase Transfer 20.4.5. Molecular Separation 20.5. Chemical Treatment: An Overview 20.5.1. Acid/Base Neutralization 20.5.2. Chemical Precipitation 20.5.3. Coprecipitation of Metals 20.5.4. Oxidation/Reduction 20.5.5. Electrolysis 20.5.6. Hydrolysis 20.5.7. Chemical Extraction and Leaching 20.5.8. Ion Exchange 20.6. Green Waste Treatment by Photolysis and Sonolysis 20.7. Thermal Treatment Methods 20.7.1. Incineration Systems 20.7.2. Wet Air Oxidation 20.7.3. UV-Enhanced Wet Oxidation 20.7.4. Destruction of Hazardous Wastes in Cement Manufacture 20.8. Biodegradation of Wastes 20.9. Phytoremediation 20.10. Land Treatment and Composting 20.10.1. Land Treatment 20.10.2. Composting 20.11. Preparation of Wastes for Disposal 20.12. Ultimate Disposal of Wastes 20.12.1. Disposal Aboveground 20.12.2. Landfill 20.12.3. Surface Impoundment of Liquids 20.12.4. Deep-Well Disposal of Liquids 20.13. Leachate and Gas Emissions 20.14. In Situ Treatment 20.14.1. In Situ Thermal Processes References Further Readings Chapter 21: The Biosphere: Environmental Biochemistry 21.1. Life and the Biosphere 21.1.1. The Biosphere in Stabilizing the Earth System: The Gaia Hypothesis 21.2. Metabolism and Control in Organisms 21.2.1. Enzymes in Metabolism 21.2.2. Nutrients 21.2.3. Control in Organisms 21.3. Reproduction and Inherited Traits 21.4. Stability and Equilibrium of the Biosphere 21.5. Biochemistry 21.5.1. Biomolecules 21.6. Biochemistry and the Cell 21.6.1. Major Cell Features 21.7. Proteins 21.7.1. Protein Structure 21.7.2. Denaturation of Proteins 21.8. Carbohydrates 21.9. Lipids 21.10. Enzymes 21.11. Nucleic Acids 21.11.1. Nucleic Acids in Protein Synthesis 21.11.2. Modified DNA 21.12. Recombinant Dna and Genetic Engineering 21.13. Metabolic Processes 21.13.1. Energy-Yielding Processes 21.14. Metabolism of Xenobiotic Compounds 21.14.1. Phase I and Phase II Reactions References Further Readings Chapter 22: Toxicological Chemistry 22.1. Introduction to Toxicology and Toxicological Chemistry 22.1.1. Toxicology 22.1.2. Synergism, Potentiation, and Antagonism 22.2. Dose–Response Relationships 22.3. Relative Toxicities 22.3.1. Nonlethal Effects 22.4. Reversibility and Sensitivity 22.4.1. Hypersensitivity and Hyposensitivity 22.5. Xenobiotic and Endogenous Substances 22.6. Toxicological Chemistry 22.6.1. Toxicants in the Body 22.6.2. Phase I Reactions 22.6.3. Phase II Reactions 22.7. Kinetic Phase and Dynamic Phase 22.7.1. Kinetic Phase 22.7.2. Dynamic Phase 22.7.3. Primary Reaction in the Dynamic Phase 22.7.4. Biochemical Effects in the Dynamic Phase 22.7.5. Responses to Toxicants 22.8. Teratogenesis, Mutagenesis, Carcinogenesis, and Effects on the Immune and Reproductive Systems 22.8.1. Teratogenesis 22.8.2. Mutagenesis 22.8.3. Biochemistry of Mutagenesis 22.8.4. Carcinogenesis 22.8.5. Biochemistry of Carcinogenesis 22.8.6. Alkylating Agents in Carcinogenesis 22.8.7. Testing for Carcinogens 22.8.8. Bruce Ames Test 22.8.9. Immune System Response 22.8.10. Endocrine Disruption 22.9. Health Hazards 22.9.1. Assessment of Potential Exposure 22.9.2. Epidemiological Evidence 22.9.3. Estimation of Health Effects Risks 22.9.4. Risk Assessment References Further Readings Chapter 23: Toxicological Chemistry of Chemical Substances 23.1. Introduction 23.1.1. ATSDR Toxicological Profiles 23.2. Toxic Elements and Elemental Forms 23.2.1. Ozone 23.2.2. White Phosphorus 23.2.3. Elemental Halogens 23.2.4. Heavy Metals 23.3. Toxic inorganic Compounds 23.3.1. Cyanide 23.3.2. Carbon Monoxide 23.3.3. Nitrogen Oxides 23.3.4. Hydrogen Halides 23.3.5. Hydrogen Fluoride 23.3.6. Hydrogen Chloride 23.3.7. Interhalogen Compounds and Halogen Oxides 23.3.8. Inorganic Compounds of Silicon 23.3.9. Asbestos 23.3.10. Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds 23.3.11. Inorganic Compounds of Sulfur 23.3.12. Perchlorate 23.3.13. Organometallic Compounds 23.3.14. Organolead Compounds 23.3.15. Organotin Compounds 23.3.16. Carbonyls 23.3.17. Reaction Products of Organometallic Compounds 23.4. Toxicology of Organic Compounds 23.4.1. Alkane Hydrocarbons 23.4.2. Alkene and Alkyne Hydrocarbons 23.4.3. Benzene and Aromatic Hydrocarbons 23.4.4. Toluene 23.4.5. Naphthalene 23.4.6. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 23.4.7. Oxygen-Containing Organic Compounds 23.4.7.1. Oxides 23.4.7.2. Alcohols 23.4.7.3. Phenols 23.4.7.4. Aldehydes and Ketones 23.4.7.5. Carboxylic Acids 23.4.7.6. Ethers 23.4.7.7. Acid Anhydrides 23.4.7.8. Esters 23.4.8. Organonitrogen Compounds 23.4.8.1. Aliphatic Amines 23.4.8.2. Carbocyclic Aromatic Amines 23.4.8.3. Pyridine 23.4.8.4. Melamine 23.4.8.5. Acrylamide: Toxic Potato Chips? 23.4.8.6. Nitriles 23.4.8.7. Nitro Compounds 23.4.8.8. Nitrosamines 23.4.8.9. Isocyanates and Methyl Isocyanate 23.4.8.10. Organonitrogen Pesticides 23.4.9. Organohalide Compounds 23.4.9.1. Alkyl Halides 23.4.9.2. Alkenyl Halides 23.4.9.3. Aryl Halides 23.4.10. Organohalide Pesticides 23.4.10.1. TCDD 23.4.10.2. Chlorinated Phenols 23.4.11. Organosulfur Compounds 23.4.11.1. Sulfur Mustards 23.4.12. Organophosphorus Compounds 23.4.12.1. Organophosphate Esters 23.4.12.2. Phosphorothionate and Phosphorodithioate Ester Insecticides 23.4.12.3. Organophosphorus Military Poisons 23.5. Toxic Natural Products References Further Readings Chapter 24: Chemical Analysis in Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry 24.1. Analytical Chemistry 24.2. The Chemical Analysis Process 24.3. Major Categories of Chemical Analysis 24.4. Error and Treatment of Data 24.5. Gravimetric and Volumetric Analyses 24.6. Spectrophotometric Methods of Analysis 24.6.1. Absorption Spectrophotometry 24.6.2. Atomic Absorption and Emission Analyses 24.6.3. Atomic Emission Techniques 24.7. Electrochemical Methods of Analysis 24.8. Chromatography 24.8.1. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 24.8.2. Ion Chromatography 24.9. Methods for Water Analysis 24.10. Mass Spectrometry 24.11. Automated Analyses 24.12. Immunoassay Screening 24.13. Total Organic Carbon in Water 24.14. Measurement of Radioactivity in Water 24.15. Analysis of Wastes and Solids 24.15.1. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure 24.16. Atmospheric Monitoring 24.16.1. Methods for Sampling and Analyzing Atmospheric Pollutants 24.16.2. Atmospheric Carbon Monoxide by Infrared Absorption 24.16.3. Determination of Hydrocarbons and Organics in the Atmosphere 24.16.4. Direct Spectrophotometric Analysis of Gaseous Air Pollutants 24.17. Analysis of Biological Materials and Xenobiotics 24.17.1. Indicators of Exposure to Xenobiotics 24.17.2. Immunological Methods of Xenobiotics Analysis References Further Readings Index