Epistemology and Natural Philosophy in the 18th Century: The Roots of Modern Physics

Description

This book documents the process of transformation from natural philosophy, which was considered the most important of the sciences until the early modern era, into modern disciplines such as mathematics, physics, natural history, chemistry, medicine and engineering. It focuses on the 18th century, which has often been considered uninteresting for the history of science, representing the transition from the age of genius and the birth of modern science (the 17th century) to the age of prodigious development in the 19th century. Yet the 18th century, the century of Enlightenment, as will be demonstrated here, was in fact characterized by substantial ferment and novelty. To make the text more accessible, little emphasis has been placed on the precise genesis of the various concepts and methods developed in scientific enterprises, except when doing so was necessary to make them clear. For the sake of simplicity, in several situations reference is made to the authors who are famous today, such as Newton, the Bernoullis, Euler, d’Alembert, Lagrange, Lambert, Volta et al. – not necessarily because they were the most creative and original minds, but mainly because their writings represent a synthesis of contemporary and past studies. The above names should, therefore, be considered more labels of a period than references to real historical characters. Preface Contents 1 Epistemology and Science at the Turn of the 18th Century 1.1 The Heritage of the 17th Century 1.1.1 Descartes's Purely Deductive Mixed Mathematics 1.1.2 Pardies' Mechanics and Theory of Light 1.1.3 Huygens' Philosophical Mixed Mathematics 1.2 Newton Philosopher, Theologian, Alchemist and Even Mathematician 1.2.1 Space, Time and Motion 1.2.2 The Concept of Force 1.2.3 Theory of Light 1.2.4 Theological Writings. The Treatise on Apocalypse 1.2.5 A New Form of Mechanicism. The Queries 1.2.6 Newton's Methodology 1.3 Quotations References 2 The Birth of Physics as an Academic Discipline 2.1 Mechanical Philosophy 2.2 Experimental Philosophy 2.2.1 The Experimental Philosophy of the Accademia del Cimento 2.2.2 The Natural Histories of the Royal Society of London 2.3 Mechanical Philosophy, Experimental Philosophy and Mixed Mathematics 2.4 Robert Boyle, an Experimental and Mechanical Philosopher 2.4.1 Mathematics and Experimental Philosophy 2.4.2 Hypotheses and Matters of Fact 2.4.3 Corpuscular Philosophy and Chemistry. Physical Chemistry 2.5 Newtonian Philosophy 2.5.1 Influence of Newtonianism on Physicists 2.5.2 Influence of Newtonianism on Chemists 2.6 The Treatises of Experimental Physics 2.7 The Technology of Scientific Instruments 2.8 Quotations References 3 Classical Mechanics 3.1 Mechanics and Natural Philosophy at the Turn of Century 3.2 The Spreading of Calculus 3.2.1 First Uses in Dynamics 3.3 Scalar Approaches to Mechanics 3.3.1 Johann Bernoulli's Forces and Energies 3.3.2 Maupertuis and the Role of God in Mechanics 3.4 Euler's Natural Philosophy and Vector Analysis 3.4.1 Philosophy of Nature 3.4.2 Mechanics and Mathematics 3.4.3 The Apparent Motion and the Observer 3.5 D'Alembert Science and Philosophy 3.5.1 The Way to Knowledge 3.5.2 The Parts of Science 3.5.3 Mechanics as a Mathematical Science 3.6 Epilogue. Lagrangian Synthesis 3.7 Quotations References 4 Physics in General 4.1 Theories of Light 4.1.1 Projectile Theories 4.1.2 Vibration Theories 4.2 Photometry, a New Field of Optics 4.2.1 Lambert's Contribution. A Philosopher and a Physicist 4.3 Electricity as a Paradigm of Experimental Sciences 4.3.1 Early Theories About Electricity 4.3.2 Some Elements in the History of Electricity in the 18th Century 4.3.3 A Representative of British Electricity. Stephen Gray 4.3.4 The Leyden Jar 4.3.5 A Comprehensive Theory of Electricity. Franz Ulrich Theodosius Aepinus 4.3.6 The Italian School 4.3.7 Giambattista Beccaria 4.3.8 Carlo Battista Barletti 4.3.9 Charles Augustin Coulomb 4.4 Quotations References 5 The Emergence of the Science of Engineering 5.1 Science, Technology and Engineering 5.1.1 Technology Versus Applied Science 5.1.2 A Historical Perspective 5.2 Scientists or Technologists? 5.2.1 A Civil Engineer: John Smeaton 5.2.2 A Philosophical Engineer. James Watt 5.3 Quotations References Index