Water-Formed Deposits: Fundamentals and Mitigation Strategies

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Water-Formed Deposits: Fundamentals and Mitigation Strategies wholly presents the important issue of deposits in aqueous systems, both industrial and biological. By analyzing causes, mechanisms and mitigation strategies, the book helps researchers/engineers/end-users gain a fundamental understanding of the issues underlying deposit formation and mitigation. It covers numerous, fundamental aspects of water-formed deposits, while also giving an applications’ perspective. The book's goal is to assist the reader in his/her understanding of the important issues of scale formation, while also helping with potential solutions. Front Cover Water-Formed Deposits: Fundamentals and Mitigation Strategies Copyright Contents Contributors Editors Biography Preface Acknowledgments Section A: Fouling and scaling fundamentals Chapter 1: Water chemistry and its role in industrial water systems 1.1. Introduction 1.1.1. Wettability 1.1.2. Water and hydrophilic, hydrophobic surfaces 1.1.3. Mixed wettability condition 1.1.4. Effect of roughness on scaling 1.1.5. Effect of surface wettability on nucleation and crystal growth 1.2. Experimental 1.3. Results and discussion 1.4. Conclusions References Chapter 2: Mechanisms of scale formation and inhibition 2.1. Scale: Definition and impact on industrial processes 2.1.1. What is scale? 2.1.2. Impact of scaling on industrial processes 2.2. Theoretical background of scaling 2.2.1. Solid crystals 2.2.2. Solution supersaturation 2.2.3. The scaling process 2.2.3.1. Initiation 2.2.3.2. Transport 2.2.3.3. Attachment 2.2.3.4. Removal 2.2.3.5. Aging 2.2.4. Mechanism of scale formation 2.2.4.1. Supersaturation 2.2.4.2. Nucleation 2.2.4.3. Induction period 2.2.4.4. Crystal growth 2.3. Scaling in flow systems 2.3.1. Scale precipitation 2.3.2. Calculations of scale profile along a tube 2.4. Factors affecting the nucleation rates 2.4.1. Supersaturation 2.4.2. Contact time 2.4.3. Hydrodynamic factors 2.4.3.1. Velocity 2.4.3.2. Pipe diameter 2.4.3.3. Reynolds number 2.4.4. Surface roughness and material 2.4.5. Temperature 2.4.5.1. Scale formation 2.4.5.2. Induction period 2.4.5.3. Scale deposits 2.5. Scale inhibition by chemical additives 2.5.1. Roles of additives on scale formation 2.5.2. Additive types 2.5.2.1. Inorganic additives 2.5.2.2. Organic compounds 2.5.2.3. Polymers 2.5.2.4. Green inhibitors 2.5.3. Change of scale morphology 2.6. Scale-inhibitor interface 2.6.1. Location of inhibitor at the surface 2.6.2. Chemical bonding of inhibitors at the surface 2.7. Inhibition performance 2.7.1. Inhibiting effects 2.7.2. Factors that influence scale inhibition 2.7.2.1. Retention time 2.7.2.2. Temperature 2.7.2.3. pH 2.7.2.4. Additive concentration 2.7.2.5. Chemical structure 2.7.2.6. Divalent cations 2.7.3. Langmuir adsorption isotherms 2.8. Conclusion References Chapter 3: History of phosphorus-containing corrosion inhibitors: From the beginning till the present time 3.1. About corrosion and its inhibition 3.1.1. Short summary of corrosion 3.1.2. Corrosion inhibitors 3.2. Phosphorus atoms responsible for corrosion inhibition 3.2.1. Phosphates used for corrosion control 3.2.2. Phosphonic acids, phosphonates 3.2.2.1. Phosphonic acid inhibitors with OH, COOH, and P(O)(OH)2 substituents 3.2.2.2. Phosphonic acids with nitrogen atom(s) α-Aminophosphonic acids N-phosphonomethyl amino acids Phosphonomethylated alkylamines Amino-tris(methylenephosphonic acid) Special types of phosphonic acid inhibitors with N 3.3. How to increase the corrosion inhibitory efficacy of phosphorus-containig molecues? 3.3.1. Influence of metal ions 3.3.1.1. Influence of the calcium ion on the effectiveness of phosphonic acids 3.3.1.2. Influence of the zinc ion on the effectiveness of phosphonic acids 3.3.1.3. Influence of other cations on the effectiveness of phosphonic acids 3.3.2. Other organic/inorganic additives that demonstrate the synergistic effect of metal ions in the presence of differe ... 3.4. Self-assembled nanolayers with phosphorus content 3.4.1. Corrosion inhibition by coatings 3.4.2. P-containing SAM layers 3.4.2.1. Amphiphiles with phosphate head groups in SAM layers 3.4.2.2. Phosphonic acid amphiphiles in SAM layers 3.4.3. Stability of the self-assembled molecular layers 3.4.3.1. Mechanical and chemical stabilities 3.4.3.2. Thermal stability 3.5. Summary References Chapter 4: Biomineralization: Applied to biodeterioration and bioremediation 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Mineralogical indicators for biodeterioration (MIC) 4.2.1. Isotope fractionation 4.2.2. Sulfur fractionation 4.2.2.1. Mild iron/carbon steel 4.2.2.2. Copper alloys 4.2.2.3. Concrete 4.2.3. Iron isotope fractionation 4.2.3.1. Fe2+ oxidation 4.2.3.2. Feppt3+ reduction 4.2.4. Outlook for isotope fractionation as a tool to identify biodeterioration 4.3. Biomineralization as a tool for repair and restoration 4.3.1. Vivianite 4.3.2. Calcium carbonate 4.3.2.1. Biodeposition 4.3.2.2. Biocementation 4.3.3. Outlook for applications of biomineralization for bioremediation 4.3.3.1. Vivianite 4.3.3.2. Calcium carbonate References Chapter 5: Microfouling in industrial cooling water systems 5.1. Introduction 5.1.1. Microbial biofilm formation and biocorrosion 5.2. Growth phases of biofilm 5.2.1. Reversible phase 5.2.2. Irreversible phase 5.2.3. Biofilm development phase 5.2.4. Biofilm dispersal phase 5.3. Distribution of bacteria in an industrial cooling system 5.4. Factors influencing biofilm development and microfouling 5.5. Microfouling monitoring techniques 5.6. Microfouling and corrosion 5.7. Bacteria involved in corrosion 5.7.1. Iron-oxidizing bacteria 5.7.2. Exopolymer (slime)-producing bacteria 5.7.3. Nitrate-reducing bacteria 5.7.4. Sulfate-reducing bacteria 5.7.5. Other corrosion causing bacteria 5.7.5.1. Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria 5.7.5.2. Methanogens 5.7.5.3. Algae 5.7.5.4. Fungi 5.8. Microfouling or slime control 5.9. Corrosion control and cooling water treatment 5.10. Strategies for cooling water systems 5.11. Conclusion References Chapter 6: Particulate matter: Interfacial properties, fouling, and its mitigation 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Fouling 6.3. Impurities and suspended solids 6.3.1. Categories of fouling 6.3.1.1. Particulate fouling 6.3.1.2. Precipitation fouling (sedimentation fouling) 6.3.1.3. Chemical reaction fouling 6.3.1.4. Corrosion fouling 6.3.1.5. Accumulation of biological fouling 6.3.2. The fouling process 6.3.2.1. Initiation 6.3.2.2. Transport 6.3.2.3. Attachment 6.3.2.4. Removal 6.3.2.5. Aging 6.3.2.6. Change in deposition thickness with time 6.3.2.7. Composite fouling 6.3.3. Effects of fouling 6.3.3.1. Effect of fouling on heat exchanger design 6.3.3.2. Effects of fouling on heat transport 6.3.3.3. Effect of fouling on pressure drop 6.3.4. Conditions influencing fouling 6.4. Particle transportation, adhesion, and fouling interface 6.5. Factors influencing fouling: Heat exchanger type, geometry, and process fluid 6.6. Fouling models 6.7. Cost imposed due to fouling 6.8. Fouling mitigation 6.8.1. Use of additives in fouling mitigation 6.8.1.1. Antiscaling additives 6.8.1.2. Synthetic and ``green´´ chemical additives 6.8.2. Mitigation of fouling by particulate materials (nanoparticles, fibers) 6.8.2.1. Nanoparticles 6.8.2.2. MWCNT-EDTA additives 6.8.2.3. Natural fibers 6.8.2.4. Synthetic fibers 6.8.3. Mitigation of fouling in the ocean structures 6.9. Membrane fouling 6.9.1. Mechanism of organic fouling 6.9.2. Mechanism of biofouling 6.9.3. Membrane fouling mitigation strategies 6.9.3.1. Pretreatment and membrane cleaning 6.9.3.2. Fouling-resistant membranes 6.10. Corrosion fouling additives 6.11. Mitigation of fouling by mechanical methods 6.11.1. Magnetic fouling mitigation 6.12. Fouling mitigation on different heat exchanging surfaces 6.12.1. Oilfield mineral scale mitigation 6.13. Summary References Chapter 7: Calcium phosphates in geological, biological, and industrial systems 7.1. Introduction 7.2. Calcium phosphates in geological and biological systems 7.2.1. Structure and composition of calcium phosphates 7.2.1.1. Dicalcium phosphate dihydrate 7.2.1.2. Octacalcium phosphate 7.2.1.3. Amorphous calcium phosphates 7.2.1.4. Hydroxyapatite (HA or HAp, or OHAp) 7.2.1.5. Fluorapatite (FA or FAp) 7.2.1.6. Calcium pyrophosphate 7.2.2. Solubility of calcium phosphates 7.2.3. Stability of calcium phosphates 7.2.4. Calcium phosphates in pathological mineralization 7.2.5. Dental applications 7.3. Calcium phosphates in industry 7.3.1. Calcium phosphates in water treatment 7.3.1.1. Background: Water treatment Scale inhibition Corrosion inhibition 7.3.2. Balancing scale and corrosion inhibition-The quest for a satisfactory surface film 7.3.2.1. Practical observations: Operating conditions and the surface film 7.3.2.2. Practical observations: Screening tests 7.3.3. The effectiveness of polymers 7.3.3.1. Crystalline vs amorphous deposits 7.3.3.2. Factors affecting dispersant polymers 7.3.3.3. Understanding polyelectrolyte dispersant activity Polymer solubility Applying solubility information 7.3.3.4. The physical chemistry of polymer solutions determines solubility Counterion condensation Hydrodynamic volume 7.3.3.5. Complicating factors 7.3.4. Boilers 7.3.5. Reverse osmosis 7.3.6. Other uses References Chapter 8: Nonchemical methods to control scale and deposit formation 8.1. Introduction 8.2. Mechanism of PWT-Bulk precipitation 8.3. Magnetic water treatment 8.4. Laboratory tests 8.5. Field tests 8.6. Water treatment using solenoid coils 8.7. Laboratory tests 8.8. Field tests 8.9. Water treatment using RF electric fields 8.10. Water treatment using high-voltage capacitor system 8.11. Validation field tests 8.12. Water treatment using catalytic metals 8.13. Validation studies 8.14. Conclusions References Chapter 9: Silica and metal silicate deposits 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Cases of silica and metal silicate deposits 9.2.1. Cooling water systems 9.2.2. Geothermal plants 9.2.3. Reverse osmosis (RO) membrane systems 9.2.4. Boilers 9.3. Formation mechanisms 9.3.1. Cooling water systems 9.3.1.1. Polymerization of silicic acid 9.3.1.2. Magnesium silicate 9.3.1.3. Aluminum silicate 9.3.1.4. Iron silicate 9.3.1.5. Zinc silicate 9.3.2. Geothermal plants 9.3.2.1. Polymerization of silicic acid 9.3.2.2. Magnesium silicate 9.3.2.3. Aluminum silicate 9.3.2.4. Iron silicate 9.3.3. RO membrane systems 9.3.3.1. Polymerization of silicic acid 9.3.3.2. Aluminum and iron silicate 9.4. Inhibition technologies 9.4.1. pH control 9.4.2. Chemical cleaning 9.4.3. Inhibitors 9.4.3.1. Polymerization of silicic acid 9.4.3.2. Magnesium silicate 9.4.3.3. Aluminum silicate 9.4.3.4. Iron silicate 9.4.4. Removal of silicic acid 9.5. Summary References Section B: Scaling and fouling issues by industry Chapter 10: Reverse osmosis: Fundamental causes of membrane deposition and approaches to mitigation 10.1. Introduction to reverse osmosis 10.1.1. Development and applications of RO 10.1.2. Basic RO terminology 10.1.2.1. Recovery 10.1.2.2. Solute rejection and solute passage 10.1.2.3. Water flux 10.1.3. Polyamide thin-film composite membrane physical characterization 10.1.3.1. Membrane surface roughness 10.1.3.2. Hydrophilicity and contact angle 10.1.3.3. Zeta potential of membrane-solution Interface 10.2. RO membrane deposits 10.2.1. Membrane fouling 10.2.1.1. The nature of RO membrane fouling Suspended solids Metal oxides Organic compounds Biological materials Miscellaneous solids: Aluminum hydroxides and silicates, and carbon fines 10.2.1.2. Fouling effects on RO membrane system performance 10.2.1.3. Guidelines to minimize membrane fouling 10.2.2. Membrane scaling 10.2.2.1. The nature of RO membrane scaling Hardness scales Silica scale Struvite 10.2.2.2. Effects of scaling on membrane performance 10.2.2.3. Guidelines to minimize membrane scaling 10.3. Mitigation of deposits via pretreatment and consequences of inadequate operations 10.3.1. Feed water source and quality 10.3.2. Pretreatment considerations 10.3.2.1. Issues with hardness pretreatment Softening Antiscalants pH adjustment 10.3.2.2. Issues with pretreatment for reactive silica 10.3.2.3. Issues with struvite control 10.3.2.4. Issues with water and wastewater pretreatment for suspended solids and dissolved organics Conventional sedimentation (clarification) issues Filtration issues Issues in wastewater treatment for reuse Iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfide removal issues 10.3.2.5. Biofouling control issues 10.4. Deposits enhanced by membrane characteristics 10.4.1. Polyamide membrane surface roughness and enhanced deposition 10.4.2. Polyamide membrane hydrophilicity and zeta potential 10.4.2.1. Effects of pH on membrane properties pH impact on membrane hydrophilicity pH impact on membrane surface charge 10.4.2.2. Impact of ionic strength and solution chemistry 10.5. Performance decline due to deposits enhanced by concentration polarization 10.5.1. Implications of concentration polarization for membrane deposition 10.6. Mitigation of deposits via membrane cleaning 10.6.1. Chemical considerations 10.6.2. Physical considerations 10.7. Summary References Further reading Chapter 11: Cooling water systems: An overview 11.1. Cooling water systems overview: Industrial applications 11.1.1. Types of cooling water systems in industrial use 11.1.2. Open cooling water systems 11.1.3. Closed loop systems 11.1.4. Cooling water system applications 11.1.4.1. Commercial HVAC systems 11.1.4.2. Light industrial applications 11.1.4.3. Heavy industry (power generation, primary metals industry, ammonia, reactive monomers, etc.) 11.1.4.4. Oil refining 11.2. Treatment system approach 11.3. MOC (mechanical, operational, and chemical) approach 11.3.1. Mechanical stresses include 11.3.2. Operational stresses 11.3.3. Chemical stresses 11.3.4. Mechanical stresses 11.3.4.1. Operational control stresses 11.3.4.2. Chemical stresses 11.4. Water quality types 11.4.1. Public utilities 11.4.2. Direct use natural surface waters 11.4.2.1. Municipal reclaim water 11.4.2.2. Internal recycle streams 11.5. Common scales encountered in cooling water applications 11.5.1. The scale formation process 11.5.2. Factors affecting scale formation 11.5.3. Typical scales that occur in cooling water systems 11.5.3.1. Calcium carbonate scale 11.5.3.2. Calcium sulfate scale 11.5.3.3. Silica and metal-silicate scale 11.5.3.4. Calcium phosphate scale 11.5.3.5. Zinc-based scale 11.5.3.6. Calcium polyphosphate scale 11.5.3.7. Calcium phosphonate scale 11.6. Scale control 11.7. Chemical scale inhibitors 11.7.1. Threshold inhibitors 11.7.2. Brief history of scale inhibitor development 11.8. Individual scale inhibitors 11.8.1. Inorganic phosphates 11.8.2. Organic phosphonate 11.8.2.1. Amino-tris(methylenephosphonic acid) (AMP or ATMP or NTMP) 11.8.2.2. 1-Hydroxyethylidene-1,1-diphosphonic acid (HEDP) 11.8.2.3. 2-Phosphonobutane-1,2,4-tricarboxylic acid (PBTC) 11.8.2.4. Polyamino polyether methylene phosphonic acid (PAPEMP) 11.8.2.5. Phosphino succinic oligomer (PSO) 11.8.2.6. Polycarboxylic acid homopolymer and copolymers 11.8.2.7. Polymaleic acid (PMA) 11.8.2.8. Acrylic acid-based copolymers 11.8.2.9. Phosphino carboxylic acid (PCA) 11.8.2.10. Polyepoxysuccinic acid (PESA) 11.8.2.11. Polyaspartic acid (PASP) 11.8.3. Sulfonated copolymers 11.8.3.1. Acrylic acid and hydroxypropyl acrylate copolymer (AA/HPA) 11.8.3.2. Acrylic acid and 2-acrylamido-2-methyl propane sulfonate copolymer (AA/ATBS) 11.8.3.3. Acrylic acid/acrylamide/aminomethylsulfonate (AA/AM/AMS) 11.8.3.4. Acrylic acid/allyloxy-2-hydroxypropane-3-sulfonic acid (AA/AHPS) 11.8.3.5. Acrylic acid/acrylamidomethylpropylsulfonic acid/terbutylacrylamide (AA/AMPS/t-BAM) 11.8.3.6. Acrylic acid/acrylamindomethylpropylsulfonic acid/sulfonated styrene (AA/AMPS/SS) 11.8.3.7. Acrylic acid/allyloxy-2-hydroxypropane-3-sulfonic acid/ammonium allylpolyethoxy sulfate (AA/AHPS/APES) 11.8.3.8. High charged polymer (HCP) 11.8.3.9. Prospecting for sulfonated polymer development 11.9. Corrosion and corrosion control 11.9.1. Anodic reactions and anodic inhibition mechanism 11.9.2. Cathodic reaction and cathodic inhibition mechanism 11.10. Types of corrosion 11.10.1. Factors influencing corrosion 11.10.1.1. Water chemistry 11.10.1.2. Physical factors 11.11. Types of corrosion inhibitors 11.12. Carbon steel corrosion inhibitors 11.12.1. Calcium carbonate 11.12.2. Polyphosphates 11.12.3. Chromate 11.12.4. Zinc 11.12.5. Phosphonates 11.12.5.1. HEDP 11.12.5.2. 2-Hydroxy phosphonoacetic acid (HPA, or HPAA) 11.12.5.3. Phosphino succinic oligomer (PSO) 11.12.6. Silicates 11.12.7. Phosphate 11.12.8. Molybdate 11.12.9. Nitrite [25] 11.12.10. Nonphosphorus corrosion inhibitors [26] 11.13. Copper alloys corrosion inhibitors [27-29] 11.14. Summary References Chapter 12: Formation and mitigation of mineral scaling in geothermal power plants 12.1. Introduction to geothermal power 12.2. Silica scales 12.2.1. Amorphous silica 12.2.2. Metal silicate scale 12.2.2.1. Magnesium silicate 12.2.2.2. Aluminum silicate 12.2.2.3. Iron silicate 12.2.2.4. Manganese silicate 12.2.2.5. Zinc silicate 12.2.2.6. Mixed metal silicates 12.3. Calcium carbonate deposition 12.3.1. Introductory geochemistry 12.3.2. Modeling of scale formation in geothermal applications 12.3.3. Deposition prevention and removal 12.4. Metal sulfide deposition 12.4.1. Iron sulfide scale formation and prevention 12.4.2. Antimony and arsenic sulfide deposition 12.4.2.1. Thermodynamics of antimony sulfide and arsenic sulfide 12.4.2.2. Mitigation and cleaning of stibnite deposits 12.4.3. Additional metal sulfide species 12.5. Metal sulfate deposition 12.6. Conclusion References Chapter 13: Gypsum scale control by phosphonate additives 13.1. Introduction 13.1.1. The problem of gypsum scales in industry 13.1.2. The use of additives to combat the problem of gypsum scales in industry 13.2. Gypsum scale formation mechanisms and the effect of additives 13.2.1. Nucleation inhibition 13.2.2. Growth inhibition 13.3. Phosphorus-based additives and their effect on gypsum scales 13.3.1. Low-molecular weight organic substances 13.3.2. Low-molecular weight inorganic substances 13.3.2.1. Other types of phosphorus-based additives 13.4. Experimental results on NTMP and PBTC inhibition effect on gypsum scale formation 13.5. Conclusions References Chapter 14: Recent developments in oilfield scale control 14.1. Introduction 14.2. Common oilfield mineral scales 14.2.1. Carbonate scales 14.2.2. Sulfate scales 14.3. Scale control strategies 14.4. Chemical treatments 14.4.1. Types of scale inhibitors 14.4.1.1. Biodegradable scale inhibitors 14.4.1.2. Molecular tagged scale inhibitors 14.4.1.3. Scale inhibitor selection process and key properties 14.4.2. Scale inhibition mechanisms 14.4.3. Scale inhibitor applications 14.4.3.1. Continuous injection 14.4.3.2. Squeeze treatment 14.5. Nonchemical treatments 14.5.1. Low sulfate seawater injection with sulfate removal pumps 14.5.2. Smart wells 14.5.3. Surface engineering via use of coatings 14.6. Summary References Chapter 15: Oilfield iron sulfide scale formation and mitigation 15.1. Introduction 15.2. Iron sulfide chemistry 15.2.1. Amorphous FeS and mackinawite 15.2.2. Pyrrhotite and troilite 15.2.3. Greigite 15.2.4. Pyrite and marcasite 15.3. Iron sulfide scale composition 15.3.1. FeS scales at high temperatures 15.3.2. Phase transformation 15.4. Iron sulfide scale inhibition 15.4.1. Conventional inhibitors 15.4.2. New polymeric inhibitors 15.4.3. Chelant additives 15.4.4. Inhibitor squeeze treatment 15.5. Iron sulfide scale dissolution 15.5.1. Acids, oxidizers, and acrolein 15.5.2. Chelating agents 15.5.3. THPS 15.5.3.1. Effect of THPS concentration 15.5.3.2. Effect of NH4Cl 15.5.3.3. Effect of phosphonate 15.5.3.4. Change in scale composition 15.5.4. Dissolvers for downhole application 15.5.4.1. Corrosivity test 15.5.4.2. Compatibility test 15.5.4.3. Scale dissolution test 15.6. Summary References Chapter 16: Oilfield scale inhibitors: Synthetic and performance aspects 16.1. Introduction 16.2. Types of scale inhibitors (SIs) 16.2.1. Conventional scale inhibitors 16.2.1.1. Organophosphorus scale inhibitors Nonpolymeric phosphonate scale inhibitors: Nonpolymeric aminomethylenphosphonate scale inhibitors: Nonpolymeric bisphosphonate scale inhibitors: Polymeric phosphonate scale inhibitors: Polyphosphate scale inhibitors: Polyphosphinate scale inhibitors: 16.2.1.2. Polysulfonate scale inhibitors 16.2.1.3. Polycarboxylate scale inhibitors 16.2.2. Green scale inhibitors 16.2.2.1. Polymaleate scale inhibitors 16.2.2.2. Polyether scale inhibitors 16.2.2.3. Polyamide scale inhibitors 16.2.2.4. Polyester scale inhibitors 16.2.2.5. Biopolymer scale inhibitors 16.3. Conclusions and outlook References Chapter 17: Control of composite oilfield scales and deposits 17.1. Introduction 17.2. Types of common mineral scales 17.2.1. Calcium carbonate scale 17.2.2. Sulfate scales 17.2.3. Sulfide scales 17.2.4. Composite scales 17.3. Scale control 17.4. Coprecipitation of composite scale in oilfields 17.4.1. Composite CaCO3/CaSO4 scaling 17.4.2. PbS-CaCO3 coprecipitation 17.4.3. Coprecipitation of BaSO4/SrSO4 17.4.3.1. Laboratory investigation on scaling kinetics 17.4.3.2. Model development for exploring permeability reduction by composite (Ba, Sr)SO4 precipitation in porous media 17.4.4. Coprecipitation of BaSO4/CaSO4 17.4.5. Coprecipitation of CaCO3/BaCO3 17.5. Composite scale in other industries 17.5.1. Scale inhibition for composite fouling in geothermal brines 17.5.2. Composite CaSO4/CaCO3 scale in seawater reverse osmosis desalination system 17.5.3. Radium removal in an evaporitic system 17.5.4. Composite CaOx-SiO2 fouling in sugar mill evaporator 17.5.5. Composite precipitation in pharmaceutical industry 17.6. Conclusions References Chapter 18: Polymers for industrial water systems: Synthesis, characterization, and applications 18.1. What is a polymer? 18.1.1. Macromolecules 18.1.2. Unique properties of macromolecules 18.1.2.1. Steric stabilization 18.1.2.2. Flocculation 18.2. Types of polymer 18.2.1. Natural polymers 18.2.2. Synthetic polymers 18.2.3. Hybrid polymers 18.3. Synthesis 18.3.1. Chemical aspects 18.3.1.1. Chain polymerization 18.3.1.2. Nonchain polymerization 18.3.1.3. Biosynthesis 18.3.1.4. Grafting 18.3.2. Physical aspects 18.3.2.1. Bulk 18.3.2.2. Solution 18.3.2.3. Precipitation 18.3.2.4. Suspension 18.3.2.5. Emulsion 18.3.2.6. Inverse emulsion 18.4. Characteristics and characterization 18.4.1. Molecular characteristics 18.4.1.1. Molecular mass 18.4.1.2. Branching 18.4.1.3. Tacticity 18.4.1.4. Copolymers 18.4.1.5. End-groups and defect structures 18.4.2. Collective characteristics 18.4.2.1. Form 18.4.2.2. Appearance 18.4.2.3. Specific gravity 18.4.2.4. Viscosity 18.4.2.5. Total solids 18.4.2.6. Active solids 18.4.2.7. Hydrolytic stability 18.5. Deposit formation and mitigation in industrial water systems 18.6. Types of scales encountered in industrial water systems 18.6.1. Calcium carbonate 18.6.2. Calcium sulfate 18.6.3. Calcium phosphate 18.6.4. Magnesium ammonium phosphate 18.6.5. Silica 18.6.6. Particulate matter fouling 18.6.7. Iron oxide dispersion 18.6.8. Clay and calcium phosphate dispersion 18.7. Metal ion fouling and mitigation strategies 18.7.1. Precipitation 18.7.2. Chelation/complexation 18.7.3. Metal ion stabilization 18.7.3.1. Copper 18.7.3.2. Manganese 18.7.3.3. Iron 18.8. Concluding remarks References Chapter 19: Polymeric supports for water treatment applications 19.1. Introduction 19.1.1. Adsorption kinetics and isotherms 19.1.1.1. Adsorption kinetics 19.1.1.2. Adsorption isotherms 19.2. Functionalized polymers used for the removal of dyes from water 19.2.1. General considerations 19.2.2. Polymeric adsorbents for dyes 19.2.2.1. Cellulose derivatives 19.2.2.2. Modified chitosan 19.2.2.3. Functionalized alginates 19.2.2.4. Copolymers based on divinylbenzene (DVB) 19.2.2.5. Polyamides 19.2.2.6. Polyimides 19.2.2.7. Polyacrylonitrile 19.2.2.8. Acrylic polymers 19.2.2.9. Miscellaneous 19.3. Removal of organic pollutants from wastewater 19.3.1. General comments 19.3.2. Polymer supports for the removal of organic pollutants 19.3.2.1. Cyclodextrins 19.3.2.2. Cotton derivatives 19.3.2.3. Polystyrene/divinylbenzene resins 19.3.2.4. Other polymer supports 19.4. Removal of pesticides 19.4.1. General remarks 19.4.2. Polymer supports for the removal of pesticides 19.5. Removal of oils and organic solvents 19.5.1. General remarks 19.5.2. Polymers used for the removal of oils and organic solvents 19.5.2.1. Acrylate-based absorbents 19.5.2.2. Polyurethane based absorbents 19.5.2.3. Other supports 19.6. Removal of pharmaceuticals 19.6.1. General remarks 19.6.2. Polymer supports for the removal of pharmaceuticals 19.7. Removal of phenol and phenolic derivatives 19.7.1. Phenols and phenolic derivatives 19.7.2. Synthetic polymeric adsorbents 19.7.2.1. Styrene-divinylbenzene copolymers 19.7.2.2. Other synthetic polymeric supports 19.7.2.3. Natural polymeric adsorbents 19.8. Conclusions References Chapter 20: Scale in sugar juice evaporators: Types, cases, and prevention 20.1. Introduction 20.2. Types and sources of scale 20.3. Case studies of evaporator scale 20.3.1. Scale formation in Australian sugar mill evaporators 20.3.2. Scale formation in South African sugar mill evaporators 20.3.3. Scale formation in Fiji cane mill 20.3.4. Scales formed in beet sugar evaporators 20.3.5. Developments in scale analysis 20.4. Scale management 20.4.1. Scale inhibitors 20.4.2. Evaporator cleaning 20.5. Conclusions References Chapter 21: Scale control in thermal desalination* 21.1. Introduction 21.2. Thermal desalination processes 21.3. Seawater chemistry 21.4. Scale characterization 21.5. Thermodynamics and kinetics of scale formation 21.5.1. Soft scale: Calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide 21.5.1.1. Langelier mechanism 21.5.1.2. Dooly and Glater mechanism 21.5.2. Hard scale: Calcium sulfate 21.5.3. Physical factors in kinetics 21.6. Control of scale formation 21.6.1. Acid treatment 21.6.2. Electrolytic treatment 21.6.3. Magnetic treatment 21.6.4. Preprecipitation 21.6.5. Nanofiltration 21.6.6. Antiscalants 21.6.6.1. Dispersion 21.6.6.2. Adsorption 21.6.6.3. Modification of surfaces 21.6.6.4. Phosphates and polyphosphates 21.6.6.5. Phosphonates and polyphosphonates 21.6.6.6. Polymaleic acid and derivatives 21.6.6.7. Polyacrylic acid and derivatives 21.6.6.8. Polyaspartic acid and derivatives 21.6.6.9. Other polycarboxylic acids 21.6.6.10. Polysulfonates 21.6.6.11. Antiscalant mixtures 21.6.7. Physical controls 21.7. Future directions References Section C: Biological, environmental, and home care Chapter 22: Scale control in home care applications 22.1. Introduction 22.2. Fundamentals of scale 22.2.1. Introduction to scaling in home care applications 22.2.2. Types of scale 22.2.2.1. Calcium carbonate 22.2.2.2. Silica-based scale 22.2.2.3. Calcium phosphate 22.2.2.4. Magnesium hydroxide 22.2.2.5. Calcium sulfate 22.2.2.6. Organophosphonate scale 22.2.2.7. Metal-organic complexes 22.2.2.8. Multicomponent scale 22.2.3. Methods of avoiding scale formation 22.2.3.1. Overview of scale prevention 22.2.3.2. Water softening 22.2.3.3. Threshold effects 22.2.3.4. Dispersancy 22.2.4. Phosphate-free cleaning 22.2.5. Examples of scaling and control in fabric care applications 22.2.6. Examples of scaling and control in dish care applications 22.2.6.1. Introduction to automatic dishwashing 22.2.6.2. Nil-P ADW formulations and function Builders Bleach Chelants Crystal growth inhibitors Dispersants Surfactants Enzymes 22.2.6.3. Formulation strategy and evaluation 22.2.7. Examples of scaling and control in hard surface cleaning 22.2.7.1. Hard surface scale 22.2.7.2. All-purpose cleaners 22.2.7.3. Bathroom cleansers 22.2.7.4. Toilet bowl cleaners 22.2.7.5. Metal cleaners 22.2.7.6. Scouring agents 22.2.7.7. Others 22.2.8. Summary and conclusion References Chapter 23: Calcification of biomaterials 23.1. Introduction 23.1.1. Implants and biocompatibility 23.1.2. Phase changes in solutions. The formation of crystals of minerals from aqueous solutions. Homogeneous and heterog ... 23.2. Experimental methodology 23.2.1. Batch reactor experiments at constant supersaturation 23.2.2. Eye chamber simulation experiments 23.3. Results and discussion 23.4. Concluding remarks References Chapter 24: Kidney stone formation-Thermodynamic, kinetic, and clinical aspects 24.1. Introduction 24.2. Stone formation and crystallization mechanism 24.2.1. Supersaturation 24.2.2. Nucleation 24.2.2.1. Homogeneous nucleation 24.2.2.2. Heterogeneous nucleation 24.2.2.3. Secondary nucleation 24.3. Growth 24.4. Aggregation 24.5. Polymorphs of calcium oxalate crystals 24.6. Influence of additives on calcium oxalate crystallization 24.6.1. Macromolecular additives 24.6.1.1. Osteopontin 24.6.1.2. Tamm-Horsfall protein 24.6.1.3. Prothrombin 24.6.1.4. Albumin 24.6.1.5. Glycosaminoglycans 24.6.2. Synthetic polymers and small molecules 24.7. Struvite stone-formation 24.7.1. Concluding remark 24.8. Factors influencing the risk of calcium stone-formation in the kidneys 24.8.1. Urinary and metabolic factors involved in calcium oxalate stone-formation 24.8.1.1. Low urine volume 24.8.1.2. Mild hyperoxaluria 24.8.1.3. Urinary pH 24.8.1.4. Hypercalciuria 24.8.1.5. Hypocitraturia 24.8.1.6. Hyperuricosuria and hypomagnesiuria 24.8.1.7. Primary hyperparathyroidism 24.8.1.8. Distal renal tubular acidosis 24.8.1.9. Hereditary and enteric hyperoxaluria 24.8.1.10. Metabolic syndrome 24.8.1.11. Miscellaneous disorders, acquired conditions, and lifestyle factors 24.8.2. Nutritional factors involved in calcium stone-formation 24.8.2.1. Fluid intake 24.8.2.2. Low calcium intake 24.8.2.3. High calcium intake 24.8.2.4. Oxalate intake 24.8.2.5. Dietary meat, fish, and poultry protein 24.8.2.6. Magnesium intake 24.8.2.7. Salt intake 24.8.2.8. Refined sugar intake 24.8.2.9. Potential renal acid load (PRAL) 24.8.3. Summary References Chapter 25: Novel technologies to prevent dental plaque and calculus 25.1. The basis of saliva 25.1.1. The salivary flow in the oral cavity 25.1.2. The composition and function of saliva 25.1.3. Acquired pellicle 25.1.3.1. Composition of acquired pellicle 25.1.3.2. Formation of acquired pellicle 25.1.4. The function of acquired pellicle 25.1.4.1. Lubrication 25.1.4.2. Mineral homeostasis 25.1.4.3. Initiation for the bacterial adhesion 25.2. Tooth and periodontal tissue 25.2.1. Tooth 25.2.2. Periodontal tissue 25.2.2.1. Periodontal ligament (PDL) 25.2.2.2. Cementum 25.2.2.3. Alveolar bone 25.3. Periodontal disease and caries 25.3.1. Dental plaque 25.3.1.1. The formation of dental plaque 25.3.1.2. The role of dental plaque 25.3.2. Dental calculus 25.3.2.1. Distribution 25.3.2.2. Composition 25.3.2.3. Crystal type 25.3.2.4. Mineral content 25.3.2.5. Elemental composition of the inorganic component 25.3.2.6. Elemental composition of the organic component 25.3.2.7. Structure 25.3.2.8. Mineralization mechanism 25.3.2.9. The driving force for plaque mineralization 25.3.2.10. Microbial mineralization 25.3.2.11. Nucleation inhibitors 25.3.2.12. Crystal growth inhibitors 25.3.2.13. Enzymes degrading calcification inhibitors 25.3.2.14. Calcification promoters 25.4. Guided biofilm therapy (GBT) 25.4.1. The basis of GBT 25.4.2. Surface texture by the air-polishing system 25.4.3. Clinical advantages of the air-polishing system 25.5. Toothbrushing and flossing 25.5.1. Toothbrush history and overview 25.5.2. Types of toothbrushes 25.5.2.1. Manual toothbrush 25.5.2.2. Natural toothbrush 25.5.2.3. Electrical toothbrush 25.5.2.4. Chewable toothbrush 25.5.2.5. Musical toothbrushes 25.5.2.6. Interdental brushes 25.5.2.7. Water flossing 25.5.2.8. Toothbrushing and hygiene education 25.6. Dentrifices 25.6.1. Main components of toothpaste and mouthwashes 25.6.1.1. Abrasive (20%-50%) 25.6.1.2. Water (20%-40%) 25.6.1.3. Humectants (20%-35%) 25.6.1.4. Detergent (1%-3%) 25.6.1.5. Thickening agent (1%-2%) 25.6.1.6. Flavor (0%-2%) 25.6.1.7. Sweetener (0%-2%) 25.6.1.8. Therapeutic agent (0%-2%) 25.6.1.9. Color or preservative (0.05%-0.5%) 25.6.2. Therapeutic agents 25.6.2.1. Antidentine hypersensitivity agents 25.6.2.2. Anticaries agents 25.6.2.3. Anticalculus agents and antiplaque agents 25.6.2.4. Whitening agents 25.6.2.5. Antiaphthous agents 25.6.2.6. Antihalitosis agents 25.6.2.7. Dentifrices in context with COVID-19 25.7. Concluding remarks References Chapter 26: Biofouling (macro-fouling) in seawater intake systems 26.1. Introduction 26.1.1. Industrial cooling water systems 26.1.2. What is biofouling? 26.1.3. Features that influence biofouling growth 26.2. Biofouling growth phases 26.3. Characteristics of the macrofouling 26.4. Anthropogenic activities and invasive species on biofouling 26.4.1. Biofouling at a coastal power plant 26.5. Fouling prevention strategy 26.5.1. Passive strategy 26.5.2. Active strategy 26.6. Biofouling control in industrial systems 26.6.1. Chlorination and biofouling control 26.6.2. Target/pulse chlorination 26.7. Green technology for cooling water treatment 26.7.1. Foul release systems 26.7.2. Microstructured surfaces 26.7.3. Biomimetic surface modifications 26.7.4. Superhydrophobic surfaces 26.8. Adverse effects of antifouling procedures 26.9. Conclusion References Further reading Chapter 27: Sewer solids affecting microbiologically induced corrosion and/or hydrogen sulfide formation 27.1. Introduction 27.1.1. Sewage solids 27.1.2. Microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC) 27.2. Suspended solids and colloids 27.2.1. Characteristics and properties 27.2.1.1. Suspended solids 27.2.1.2. Colloids 27.2.2. Processes 27.2.2.1. Physical processes 27.2.2.2. Chemical processes 27.2.2.3. Biochemical processes 27.3. Sewer sediments 27.3.1. Characteristics and properties 27.3.2. Processes 27.3.2.1. Chemical processes 27.3.2.2. Biochemical processes 27.4. Sediment biofilm 27.4.1. Characteristics and properties 27.4.2. Biochemical processes 27.5. Factors affecting MIC 27.5.1. Sulfide formation 27.5.1.1. Sewer characteristics 27.5.1.2. Wastewater 27.6. Sulfide control 27.6.1. Design of the sewerage network 27.6.2. Inlet controls 27.6.3. Sewer solids control 27.7. Conclusion References Chapter 28: Legionella: Causes, cases, and mitigation 28.1. Legionella and Legionnaires disease 28.2. Legionella in industrial water systems and cooling towers 28.2.1. Types of industrial water systems that are susceptible to Legionella colonization and transmission 28.2.1.1. Cooling towers, evaporative condensers, fluid coolers and evaporative coolers 28.2.1.2. Closed loop systems (Towerless cooling systems) 28.2.1.3. Air scrubbers 28.2.2. Factors contributing to Legionella colonization and transmission 28.2.2.1. Industrial water system physicochemical environment 28.2.2.2. Inconsistent treatment programs 28.2.2.3. High nutrient content 28.2.3. Legionella colonization control strategies 28.2.3.1. Oxidizing biocides 28.2.3.2. Non-oxidizing biocides 28.2.4. Impact of Legionella control approaches on scale and corrosion 28.2.4.1. Non-chemical approaches 28.2.4.2. Oxidizing biocides 28.2.4.3. Non-oxidizing biocides 28.2.4.4. Scale/corrosion inhibition 28.3. Legionella in building potable water systems 28.3.1. Factors contributing to Legionella colonization and transmission in building water systems 28.3.1.1. Hot water temperature 28.3.1.2. Cold water temperature 28.3.1.3. Mixing valves 28.3.1.4. Sensor faucets 28.3.1.5. Hot water circulation 28.3.1.6. Ice machines 28.3.1.7. Cold water storage tanks 28.3.2. Legionella colonization control strategies in building water systems 28.3.2.1. Water temperatures 28.3.2.2. Hyperchlorination 28.3.2.3. Chlorine dioxide 28.3.2.4. Copper-silver ionization 28.3.2.5. Monochloramine 28.3.3. Impact of Legionella control approaches on scale and corrosion 28.3.3.1. Water temperature 28.3.3.2. Chlorination 28.3.3.3. Chlorine dioxide 28.3.3.4. Copper-silver ionization 28.3.3.5. Monochloramine 28.4. Additional types of non-potable water systems that are susceptible to Legionella colonization and transmission 28.4.1. Other non-potable systems 28.4.1.1. Decorative water features 28.4.1.2. Pools and spas 28.4.1.3. Mist generators 28.4.2. Factors contributing to Legionella colonization and transmission 28.4.2.1. Improper, inconsistent, or non-existent treatment programs 28.4.2.2. Placement in high-traffic locations 28.4.2.3. Submerged lighting and nearby sources of organic materials 28.4.2.4. Legionella colonization control strategies 28.5. Impact of legislation, regulations, and guidance Summary References Section D: Systems support and maintenance Chapter 29: Global water treatment trends and issues 29.1. Introduction 29.1.1. The importance of water 29.2. Water usage 29.2.1. Sources 29.2.2. Global water use 29.2.3. Desalination 29.3. Global water shortages 29.3.1. Wildfire dangers 29.4. Water quality 29.4.1. The universal solvent 29.4.2. Aesthetics and safety 29.5. Water-related problems 29.5.1. Public health concerns 29.5.2. Safe water availability 29.5.2.1. Safe water-The bigger picture 29.5.3. Developed world concerns 29.5.3.1. Cryptosporidium outbreak 29.5.4. Pathogenic microbials 29.5.5. Other contaminants of concern 29.5.6. Regulatory standards 29.5.7. Aging infrastructure 29.6. Water-related treatment concerns 29.6.1. News events and regulatory actions 29.6.2. Current/recent events impacting drinking water 29.6.2.1. Perfluoroalkyl substances 29.6.2.2. Endocrine disruptors 29.6.2.3. Arsenic 29.6.2.4. Unexpected consequences from regulations 29.7. Examples of technology advancements 29.7.1. Ultraviolet 29.7.2. PFAS removal media 29.7.3. Specialty media 29.7.4. Smart treatments 29.8. Water treatment markets 29.9. Closing takeaways References Chapter 30: Simulation tools for membrane scaling in reverse osmosis desalination plants 30.1. Introduction 30.2. Background information 30.2.1. Nucleation and crystal growth-Thermodynamic and kinetic considerations 30.2.2. Factors and mechanisms involved in desalination-membrane scaling 30.2.3. Flow field and transport phenomena in membrane modules 30.2.4. Scaling in desalination plants-Key issues and current predictive capabilities 30.3. Experimental findings-Assessment of key parameters and mechanisms 30.3.1. Incipient membrane scaling-Induction period and experimental techniques 30.3.1.1. Induction period 30.3.1.2. Experimental techniques 30.3.2. Rate and pattern of membrane scaling-Effect of wall supersaturation ratio Sw 30.3.3. Assessment of deposition mechanisms at the membrane surface 30.4. Modeling membrane scaling in RO desalination systems 30.4.1. Review of modeling efforts 30.4.2. Toward comprehensive modeling of membrane-scaling evolution 30.5. Development of realistic simulation tools 30.5.1. Approach 30.5.1.1. Multi-purpose database 30.5.1.2. Comprehensive modeling framework 30.5.2. Implementation-Progress made 30.6. Conclusions-RandD priorities References Chapter 31: Synthesis, properties, and applications of novel fluorescent-tagged scale inhibitors in water treatment 31.1. Introduction 31.2. Synthetic approaches to fluorescent-tagged antiscalants 31.2.1. Fluorescent-tagged polymers 31.2.1.1. Radical polymerization used to implement fluorophore moiety into polymer structure Scale inhibitors containing organic fluorophores based on polyaromatic compounds Scale inhibitors containing organic fluorophores derived from five-membered and six-membered heterocycles Scale inhibitors containing organic fluorophores with a carbonyl group 31.2.1.2. Polycondensation as a method of introduction of a fluorescent marker into the composition of a polymer 31.2.2. Fluorescent-tagged phosphonates 31.2.2.1. Synthesis of fluorescent α-hydroxybisphosphonates 31.3. Inhibition, fluorescent, and other properties of fluorescent-tagged antiscalants 31.4. Applications of fluorescent-tagged scale inhibitors for industrial purposes 31.5. Conclusion References Chapter 32: Phosphonate inhibitors: Types, solution chemistry, and applications 32.1. Introduction 32.2. Phosphonates 32.2.1. Chemical structure 32.2.2. Types of phosphonates 32.2.3. General synthesis 32.3. Solution behavior 32.3.1. Complexation 32.3.2. Coordination structure and environments 32.4. Crystallization overview 32.4.1. Crystal growth modifiers 32.4.2. Barium sulfate and calcium carbonate 32.5. Applications 32.5.1. Phosphonates as crystal growth modifiers 32.5.1.1. Impact on nucleation 32.5.1.2. Impact on growth rate and morphology 32.5.1.3. Other impacts (including nonclassical mechanisms) Calixarene phosphonate molecules Phosphonate polymers and dendrimers 32.5.1.4. Mechanism of phosphonate interaction Adsorption Determining the mode of adsorption (chemi- versus physisorption) Molecular modeling 32.5.2. Water applications 32.5.2.1. Water treatment plants, desalination, and hard water applications 32.5.2.2. Detergents 32.5.2.3. Corrosion inhibition 32.5.3. Other uses of phosphonates 32.5.3.1. Biorelated fields 32.5.3.2. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) 32.5.3.3. Inhibition of cementation 32.5.4. Environmental impacts 32.5.4.1. Glyphosate 32.6. Conclusions and future prospects References Chapter 33: Introducing X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy for corrosion studies:A tool for elucidating interfacial composi ... 33.1. Introduction 33.2. XPS fundamentals 33.2.1. Photoemission process 33.2.2. Photoelectron peaks 33.2.2.1. Basics 33.2.2.2. Initial state effects 33.2.2.3. Final-state effects 33.3. XPS instrumentation 33.3.1. The photoelectron spectrometer 33.3.2. XPS at near-ambient pressures 33.3.3. XPS using hard X-rays 33.4. XPS data analysis 33.4.1. Peak fitting 33.4.2. Quantification 33.5. Corrosion case study References Chapter 34: Polyelectrolyte polymers-Types, forms, and function 34.1. Synthetic polyelectrolytes 34.2. Polyacrylamides 34.2.1. Acrylamide chemistry 34.2.1.1. Acrylamide 34.2.1.2. Polymerization of acrylamide 34.2.2. Anionic polyacrylamides 34.2.2.1. Copolymerization of acrylamide with anionic monomers 34.2.2.2. Hydrolysis of polyacrylamide 34.2.3. Cationic polyacrylamides 34.2.3.1. Polymerization of acrylamide with cationic monomers 34.2.3.2. Postreactions of polyacrylamide 34.2.4. Nonionic polyacrylamides 34.2.5. Polyacrylamide product forms 34.2.5.1. Aqueous solution polyacrylamides 34.2.5.2. Liquid polyacrylamides Inverse emulsion polymers Brine dispersions 34.2.5.3. Dry polyacrylamides 34.2.6. Polyacrylamides-Function, uses, and applications 34.2.6.1. Coagulants and flocculants 34.2.6.2. Papermaking Retention-Drainage aids Strength resins 34.2.6.3. Mineral processing 34.2.6.4. Oil field applications Friction reducers in hydraulic stimulation Chemical enhanced oil recovery (CEOR) Drilling fluid additives 34.2.6.5. Gel electrophoresis 34.3. Polyacrylates 34.3.1. Dispersants 34.3.2. Scale inhibitors 34.3.3. Water-absorbing polymers 34.4. Polyamines 34.5. Polydiallydimethylammonium chloride 34.6. Polethyleneimine 34.7. Summary References Chapter 35: Mechanisms of scale inhibition derived from a fluorescent-tagged antiscalant visualization 35.1. Introduction 35.2. Some contradictions and gaps between theory and a real antiscalant behavior 35.2.1. Experimental data diversity 35.2.2. Crystal habit modification 35.2.3. Zeta-potentials 35.2.4. Formation of complexes 35.2.5. Antiscalants on the way from the laboratory to industrial applications: Issues and challenges 35.2.6. Some evident gaps in recent fundamentals of inhibition mechanisms 35.3. Research approaches capable to eliminate some gaps 35.4. Major results and discussion 35.4.1. Particle counter analysis 35.4.2. Application of DLS intensity standard 35.4.3. Application of fluorescent-tagged antiscalants for the direct visualization of a scale inhibitor during scale for ... 35.4.4. Some notable differences in gypsum scale inhibition at ambient and elevated temperatures 35.5. Tentative ``nano-/microdust´´ -based machanisms of scale inhibition 35.6. Conclusions References Chapter 36: Mineral scale deposits-Analysis and interpretation 36.1. Introduction 36.2. Wet chemistry methods 36.3. Optical microscope 36.4. Scanning electron microscope 36.4.1. SEM scale crystal morphology analysis 36.4.2. EDS scale element composition analysis 36.5. X-ray diffraction analysis 36.6. Synchrotron radiation wide-angle X-ray scattering 36.7. Summary References Chapter 37: Regulatory and compliance issues faced by the water treatment industry 37.1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 37.1.1. The Clean Air Act 37.1.2. The Clean Water Act 37.1.2.1. Toxic and pretreatment effluent standards 37.1.2.2. Point source discharges to waters of the USA 37.1.2.3. Stormwater runoff 37.1.2.4. Pesticide formulator, packager, and repackager (PFPR) discharge 37.1.3. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 37.1.3.1. Overview 37.1.3.2. The primary EPA biocide registration process 37.1.3.3. Types of registrations 37.1.3.4. Supplemental registrations 37.1.3.5. Sources for more information 37.1.4. Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) 37.1.4.1. Emergency planning and notification 37.1.4.2. Emergency release reporting 37.1.4.3. Safety data sheet submissions 37.1.4.4. Tier reports 37.1.4.5. Toxic chemical release report/Form R 37.1.5. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 37.1.6. EPA penalties 37.2. Occupational Safety and Health Administration 37.2.1. Coverage (29 CFR Part 1975) 37.2.2. Emergency action plans (29 CFR Part 1910.38) 37.2.3. Employee exposure monitoring (OSHA general duty and Hazard assessment) 37.2.3.1. Evaluating exposure 37.2.3.2. Monitoring and sampling 37.2.3.3. NIOSH hierarchy of Hazard controls 37.2.4. The hazard communication standard (29 CFR Part 1910.1200) 37.2.4.1. Hazard classification 37.2.4.2. Written HazCom program 37.2.4.3. Labels and other forms of warnings 37.2.4.4. Training and information 37.2.5. Laboratory chemical hygiene plant (29 CFR Part 1910.1450) 37.3. Purpose 37.4. Compliance issues 37.4.1. Product stewardship 37.4.2. Compliance for water treatment chemical manufacturers 37.4.3. Compliance for water treatment service providers 37.5. Department of transportation 37.5.1. Hazardous materials regulations 37.5.1.1. Hazardous materials registration 37.5.1.2. Hazardous materials classification 37.5.1.3. Marking, labeling, placarding 37.5.1.4. Shipping 37.5.1.5. Training 37.5.1.6. Packaging 37.5.2. Federal motor carrier safety regulations (FMCSRs) 37.5.2.1. DOT number 37.5.2.2. Commercial drivers license 37.5.2.3. Driver files 37.5.2.4. Hours of service 37.5.2.5. Vehicle maintenance 37.5.2.6. DOT penalties 37.6. Additional information 37.6.1. Resources Index Back Cover