The Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek World (Routledge Worlds)

Description

This volume provides a thorough conspectus of the field of Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek studies, mixing theoretical and historical surveys with critical and thought-provoking case studies in archaeology, history, literature and art. The chapters from this international group of experts showcase innovative methodologies, such as archaeological GIS, as well as providing accessible explanations of specialist techniques such as die studies of coins, and important theoretical perspectives, including postcolonial approaches to the Greeks in India. Chapters cover the region’s archaeology, written and numismatic sources, and a history of scholarship of the subject, as well as culture, identity and interactions with neighbouring empires, including India and China. The Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek World is the go-to reference work on the field, and fulfils a serious need for an accessible, but also thorough and critically-informed, volume on the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms. It provides an invaluable resource for anyone interested in the Hellenistic East. Cover Half Title Series Page Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tables List of Contributors Chapter 1 Introduction Preliminary remarks Hellenistic Central Asia: A brief introduction Outline Acknowledgements References Part I Interactions Chapter 2 The Seleukid Empire Introduction The conquests of Seleukos I Nikator (311–281 BCE) Apama, Demodamas, and Antiochos The making of Seleukid Central Asia (294–261 BCE) Seleukid sites in Central Asia From Antiochos I to Antiochos III (261–222 BCE) The reign of Antiochos III the Great (222/1–187 BCE) Conclusion: The impact of empire Notes References Chapter 3 South Asia Introduction The Mauryan dynasty in Graeco-Roman and South Asian literature Aśokan inscriptions and Buddhist sources Mauryan sites and artefacts Archaeology Aśokan pillars Stone sculpture Punch-marked coins Conclusions References Chapter 4 Parthia Introduction Geography History of research The Achaemenid period The Hellenistic and Parthian periods Notes References Chapter 5 Central Asia and the Steppe A brief cultural geography of the northern frontier Sources and methodological problems Elite networks across Central Asia during the pre-Achaemenid and Achaemenid period The coming of the Greeks: consequences for Central Asia The independence of Sogdiana The formation of the Xiongnu Steppe Empire and its consequences across Central Asia Age of migrations? New networks and new sources on the post-Hellenistic period ‘Hellenism’ as an element in the Central Eurasian prestige economy at the turn of the millennium Notes References Chapter 6 China and Bactria during the reign of Emperor Wu in written tradition and in archaeology The Memoirs of Dayuan Emperor Wu of Han and Bactria according to the Shiji Emperor Wu of Han and Bactria in Han material culture Conclusion Literature Part II History of Scholarship Chapter 7 The quest for Bactra: Scholarship on the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom from its origins to the end of colonialism When it all began Hellenistic Bactria in the shadow of European colonialism Ancient Bactria and India revealed by travellers, adventurers, officers and statesmen Bactria and the end of European colonialism Notes References Chapter 8 The original ‘failure’? A century of French archaeology in Afghan Bactria1 Introduction Foucher, from Calcutta to Kabul (March 1921–November 1923): The birth of the DAFA Bactra, a shared dream A difficult mission The Foucher mission as seen by the British The results of the mission as presented by Foucher himself Erasing the ‘Failure’ of Bactra? Further work of the DAFA (1922–2014) Indicative List of Bactrian Sites Explored by the DAFA12 = Notes Bibliography Chapter 9 Hellenism With or Without Alexander the Great: Russian, Soviet and Central Asian approaches1 Introduction Prelude to the study of Hellenism in Central Asia The beginnings of the Russian school First contacts with the landscape Political manipulation of the ‘restoration’ of the empire of Alexander and the mission civilisatrice Colonial patrimony: The heritage of Alexander at Samarkand Investigations in the field: Continuing disagreement over the identification of Samarkand with Marakanda Colonial Patrimony: The heritage of Alexander at Merv and the Alexander Romance Visions of Alexander in Russian publications Russian researchers and Europe Alexander and the Hellenism of the Soviets The ‘Soviet School’ of the 1920s–1970s and its critique of ‘bourgeois’ theories Soviet definitions of Hellenism The advent of new interpretations of Central Asian history and Hellenism at the fringes The importance of local cultures From ‘mirage’ to reality The revision and relaxation of Marxist concepts Chronological limits and the flow of Hellenism The question of style New archaeological approaches Alexander and historical geography New philological approaches The current state of the issue Abbreviations Archives Notes References Part III Regional Archaeological Survey Chapter 10 Afghan Bactria History of research The conquest of Alexander the Great Bactra and Ai Khanoum, two capital cities Ai Khanoum Bactra Irrigation and cultivation The territory of Ai Khanoum The other plains of Eastern Bactria Western Bactrian oases A network of fortresses and military posts References Chapter 11 Southern Uzbekistan1 Introduction Geography Field work Settlement pattern Ancient place names The Crossing of the Oxus Individual Greco-Bactrian centres History7 From Dareios III to Antiochos I Graeco-Bactrian period Economy and subsistence strategies Conclusion Notes References Chapter 12 Southern Tajikistan Introduction Archaeology in southern Tajikistan from the beginning to the present day Physical and cultural landscapes of southern Tajikistan The Oxus Treasure The Oxus Temple at Takht-i Sangin The Kulyab-Vose Oasis and adjacent mountain valleys The Moskovsky Oasis The Farkhor Oasis with Saksanokhur The Pyandzh Oasis The Dangara plateau and adjacent regions The Hellenistic sanctuary at Torbulok The Yavan and Vakhsh Oases The Dushanbe-Gissar Oasis and adjacent regions The Kabadian-Shakhri Tuz Oasis Bibliography Chapter 13 Sogdiana Introduction Geography The cultural and historical background Alexander’s conquest and the Seleukid occupation Hellenistic evidence in northern Sogdiana Hellenistic evidence in southern Sogdiana (Kashka Darya) The independence of Sogdiana Sogdiana after independence: A new wave of Hellenization Note References Chapter 14 Merv and Margiana Introduction to the theme of the chapter Written sources A brief history of research Theme 1: the wall of Antiochos I Soter Theme 2: the Hellenistic foundations at Erk Kala and Gyaur Kala Theme 3: the study of material culture Settlement patterns in the oasis Hellenism on the ground History and archaeology – an uneasy relationship The nature of the evidence Architecture Coins Pottery Small finds Settlement patterns in the oasis Margiana under Hellenistic rule Administration and public life Monetary system and economy Religion Everyday life Note References Chapter 15 Arachosia, Drangiana and Areia1 Introduction Geography (FIGURE 15.1) The Achaemenid background Archaeology Field-work Old Kandahar The Kandahar region Drangiana Areia Identities Notes References Chapter 16 Gandhāra and North-Western India Preamble The liability of the archaeologist The state of research: materials A geographical divide (Figure 16.1) The state of the research: the sites Taxila Charsadda Barikot and the evidence from Swat The Greek antecedents of Barikot A digression on chronology The non-Greek component: pottery The Greek component: pottery The multi-lingual community Udegram24 Barama and Butkara I The local component: names, burial features and DNA Notes References Part IV Written Sources Chapter 17 Greek inscriptions and documentary texts and the Graeco-Roman historical tradition Introduction Inscriptions and documentary texts Inscriptions Epigraphic traditions Administrative documents Other texts How closely connected was Central Asia to the Hellenistic world? How widely was the Greek language used? The Greek and Roman tradition Contemporary accounts Polybios Strabo Justin and Pompeius Trogus The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Using these sources References Chapter 18 Reading the Milindapañha: Indian historical sources and the Greeks in Bactria Importance of the MilindapaÑha How to read the MilindapaÑha Menander in other Indian sources Conclusion Notes References Chapter 19 Chinese historical sources and the Greeks in the Western Regions1,2 Introduction Conclusion Acknowledgements Notes References Part V Numismatic Sources Chapter 20 History from coins: The role of numismatics in the study of the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek worlds Introduction Outline of coinages Previous scholarship The tools of the numismatist Iconographic studies Metal analysis Hoard and circulation analysis Die studies Notes References Chapter 21 Two sides of the coin: From Sophytes to Skanda-Kārttikeya Introduction Iconography Head of Athena Helmeted male Cockerel Control marks: caduceus and the letters ‘M’, ‘MN’ and ‘MNA’ Die study and weight standard Die study Weight standard Conclusions References Chapter 22 Dating Bactria’s independence to 246/5 BC? Background for the reappraisal Antiochos Nikator ‘King’ Antiochos, son of Berenike Did Diodotos rebel during the Third Syrian War? Reinterpreting Bactria’s Seleukid coinage A critical analysis of Justin and Strabo The Adoulis inscription and Strategemata Conclusion Acknowledgements Notes References Chapter 23 Monetary policies during the early Graeco-Bactrian kingdom (250–190 BCE) Introduction Die-studies: what, why and what for? Recent research Diodotos I and II Euthydemos I Monograms and their interpretation Monetary production and mints Conclusion References Chapter 24 The last phase of the Indo-Greeks: Methods, interpretations and new insights in reconstructing the past Methods Numismatic features and their deployment Monograms – their nature and sequences Portraiture and ‘realism’ Hoards and hoard analysis Counterstriking Interpretations based on the methods: Reconstructing the last phase ‘Tribal’ features on late Indo-Greek coins (and vice versa): ‘Trident-battle axe’ – what might it tell us? References Part VI Culture and Identity Chapter 25 Ai Khanoum, between east and west: A composite architecture Ai Khanoum Eukratideia The houses Origin Posterity Conclusion Notes Bibliography Abbreviations: Chapter 26 Globalization and interpreting visual culture Introduction: “the hub of half the planet” Defining globalization for antiquity Common uses and misunderstandings: a clarification Methodological implications Translocalism: the promise of globalization Conclusion Notes References Chapter 27 Representation of GREEK gods/goddesses in Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek visual culture Notes References Chapter 28 Roman objects in the Begram hoard and the memory of Greek rule in Kushan Central Asia Acknowledgement References Part VII Beyond the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek Worlds Chapter 29 Central Asia in the Achaemenid period Introduction Central Asia before the Achaemenid period Ulug Depe Koktepa Bektepa and Jandavlat Tepa Central Asia and the Achaemenid Empire Central Asia in Achaemenid iconography Political Relations between Central Asia and the Achaemenid Empire Central Asia in the Achaemenid administrative system Central Asian Landscape during the Achaemenid period New settlements Kyzyltepa: A case study Ritual and religion in Central Asia Ritual structures in Achaemenid Central Asia Sacred and political landscape Notes References Chapter 30 Achaemenid north-west South Asia Introduction Regionally distinct cultural assemblages in the Indo-Iranian borderlands in the early first millennium BC Peshawar, Swat and Taxila The Bannu Basin The Kachi Plain and the Makran Achaemenid control at the eastern edge of the empire: the historical evidence Reliefs, inscriptions and texts from Behistun and Persepolis The east of the Achaemenid Empire as documented by the Alexander historians Achaemenid control at the eastern edge of the empire: the archaeological evidence The valleys of Gandhāra Akra and the Bannu Basin Baluchistan and Sindh The archaeology of Alexander in India Dual types of authority and emulation at the eastern edge of the empire Conclusions References Chapter 31 Greekness after the end of the Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms Successor states Continuity and change in the Greek coinage tradition Indo-Scythian coins Indo-Parthian coins Kushan coins Greek names and terminology known from post-Indo-Greek inscriptions Greek names Greek titles Greek eras and calendar Staters and drachmas Greek gods and the influence of Greek art after the end of Greek rule Greek gods Gods on seals and sealings ‘Graeco-Buddhist art’ Conclusion Acknowledgements References Index