Energetics Science and Technology: An Integrated Approach

Description

This text demonstrates how the science of energetic materials technology can and should link various technologies in the physical sciences to provide an integrated approach. It includes physics, chemistry, materials science, theory and modelling, and will help the discipline to adapt to future needs and research. The text provides a coherent and detailed study of what is now possible and indeed necessary for effective solutions for present and future needs in energetic materials and systems. Energetics technology is a fragmented research area and there is a strong need for a book that provides an interdisciplinary view and introduces the topics along with the connections between them. This book meets this need, encourages interdisciplinary research in the field and is an invaluable reference for researchers in the area of energetic materials. PRELIMS.pdf Foreword Editor biography Adam S Cumming List of contributors CH001.pdf Chapter 1 Introduction: formulation design—an integrated approach 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Designing formulations for applications 1.3 Approach 1.4 Summary 1.5 Methods of approach 1.6 Basic properties and management 1.7 Conclusions References CH002.pdf Chapter 2 From raw ingredients to energetic materials 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Manufacturing of energetic materials: a short overview 2.2.1 Manufacturing logistics 2.2.2 Nitration reaction 2.2.3 Batch process 2.2.4 Continuous process 2.2.5 Flow chemistry 2.3 Classes of energetics 2.3.1 Nitro compounds 2.3.2 Nitroesters 2.3.3 Nitramines 2.3.4 High-nitrogen-content explosives 2.3.5 Polymers in energetics 2.3.6 Primaries 2.4 Replacement of isocyanates 2.5 Replacement of nitrocellulose 2.6 Conclusions References CH003.pdf Chapter 3 Crystal form and morphology 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Polymorphism and phase diagrams 3.2.1 Differences in physical properties of polymorphs 3.2.2 Prediction of crystal structures 3.3 Polymorphism in energetic materials 3.3.1 Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane (HNIW, CL-20) 3.3.2 2,4-Dinitroanisole 3.3.3 Ammonium nitrate 3.4 Physical particle characteristics 3.4.1 Crystal size and morphology 3.4.2 Crystal quality 3.4.3 Cocrystallization 3.5 Summary Abbreviations References CH004.pdf Chapter 4 Application of machine learning and artificial intelligence methods to energetics science and technology 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Background 4.3 Machine learning for new energetics 4.4 Energetics applications of natural language processing 4.5 Approaches for ‘small data’: data fusion based on independent vector analysis 4.6 Conclusions References CH005.pdf Chapter 5 The impact of resonance acoustic mixing on the production of solid propellants and explosives 5.1 Background 5.2 Reliability and challenges of RAM mixtures 5.3 Experimental 5.3.1 Raw materials and formulations 5.3.2 Instruments and equipments 5.3.3 Impact test devices 5.3.4 Impact sensitivity and equivalent impact force tests 5.3.5 Safety evaluation 5.4 Results and discussion 5.4.1 Impact force of different formulations 5.4.2 Impact force of sodium sulphate powder 5.4.3 Equivalence of ‘impact sensitivity’ and ‘process impact force’ 5.4.4 Safety evaluation of impact 5.5 Prospects and drawbacks of RAM 5.6 Conclusions Acknowledgements References CH006.pdf Chapter 6 Reducing vulnerability and insensitive munitions 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Energetic materials and IMs 6.3 Research priorities 6.4 Areas of active work 6.4.1 Detonics 6.4.2 Testing 6.4.3 Hazard analysis 6.4.4 Ingredients 6.4.5 Formulation 6.4.6 Processing 6.4.7 Components 6.4.8 Performance 6.4.9 Fundamental science 6.4.10 System issues 6.5 Conclusions References CH007.pdf Chapter 7 Ignition and detonation in energetic materials: an introduction 7.1 Energetic materials 7.2 Hot-spot formation 7.3 Detonation 7.4 Deflagration-to-detonation transition 7.5 Process of deflagration-to-detonation transition 7.6 Process of shock-to-detonation transition 7.7 Deflagration-to-detonation studies 7.8 Drop-weight studies 7.9 Second harmonic generation 7.10 Impact ignition 7.11 Small-scale gap test 7.12 The cylinder test 7.13 Conclusions Acknowledgements References CH008.pdf Chapter 8 Submillimetre spatially resolved observation of detonation phenomena 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Experimental equipment components and arrangements 8.3 Measurement of steady-state detonation velocity and pressure 8.4 Detonation reaction zone performance tests 8.5 Detonation failure cone test 8.6 Shock-to-detonation transition: wedge test 8.7 Shock-to-detonation transition: flyer plate impact test 8.8 Single crystal reaction observation 8.9 Conclusions Acknowledgement References CH009.pdf Chapter 9 A traditional approach to munition life management 9.1 Principles and life-management phases 9.1.1 Phase 1: design assessment and environmental exposure 9.1.2 Phase 2: life-limiting failure mechanisms 9.1.3 Phase 3: assessment methods 9.1.4 Phase 4: trials 9.1.5 Phase 5: life assessment 9.2 Conclusions Acknowledgments References CH010.pdf Chapter 10 Improved systematic life management of munitions 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Systems engineering and its approach to weapons development 10.2.1 Introduction 10.2.2 Systems engineering and the life management of munitions 10.2.3 Systems engineering, failure modes, and risk management 10.2.4 Systems engineering and spiral development of weapons 10.3 Smart through-life management 10.3.1 United Kingdom research 10.3.2 Global research 10.4 Energetic materials analysis 10.4.1 Accelerated ageing and data analysis 10.4.2 Life assessment testing: considerations and advances 10.4.3 Uniaxial, baxial and triaxial mechanical testing 10.4.4 Crack growth failure 10.4.5 Data for constitutive material models 10.4.6 Bond testing 10.4.7 Nondestructive evaluation 10.5 Modelling 10.5.1 Service life prediction modelling 10.5.2 Ab initio or physics-based modelling 10.5.3 Companion assets and trepanning 10.6 Digital threads and twins 10.7 Conclusions Acknowledgements Glossary References CH011.pdf Chapter 11 Recursive molecular similarity (R.Mo.S): an innovative algorithm for selecting a subset useful for toxicology prediction 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Data and methods 11.2.1 Data sets 11.2.2 Ames test 11.2.3 Similarity 11.2.4 Smarter algorithm: recursive molecular similarity 11.2.5 Machine learning 11.2.6 Software packages 11.3 Results 11.3.1 For the machine learning methods using DT algorithm 11.3.2 For the machine learning methods using random forest algorithms 11.3.3 For the machine learning methods using the ExtraTrees algorithm 11.3.4 For the machine learning methods using the AdaBoost algorithm 11.4 Discussion 11.5 Conclusion References CH012.pdf Chapter 12 Sustainable energetic materials 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Eco-design 12.3 Tools for eco-design 12.4 Application of life-cycle assessment to energetic materials 12.4.1 Life-cycle assessment of a 40 mm generic ammunition 12.4.2 Eco-design of small-calibre ammunition 12.5 Concluding remarks References CH013.pdf Chapter 13 Sustainable disposal solutions for weapons, ordnance, munitions, and explosives (WOME) 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Design and manufacture 13.2.1 Intelligent design for demilitarisation 13.2.2 Chemical design solutions for future energetics 13.3 Processing and recycling materials 13.3.1 Non-WOME processing and recycling techniques 13.3.2 WOME disposal process 13.3.3 Disassembly, pre-treatment, and extraction 13.3.4 Reuse, recovery, and recycling (R3) 13.3.5 Last-resort destruction 13.4 Sustinable options assesment 13.5 Conclusions 13.5.1 Overarching conclusions Acknowledgements References CH014.pdf Chapter 14 Small-calibre gun propellants 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Current formulations and processes 14.3 Testing of propellants 14.3.1 Sensitiveness tests 14.3.2 Stability of nitrate-ester-based propellants 14.4 Future axes for gun propellants 14.4.1 New formulations 14.4.2 New charges for gun propellants 14.5 Conclusion and perspectives References CH015.pdf Chapter 15 Recent advances in solid and hybrid rocket propulsion 15.1 Solid rocket propulsion 15.1.1 Introduction 15.1.2 Propellant technology 15.1.3 Combustion of composite solid propellants 15.1.4 Recent advances in solid rocket propulsion 15.2 Hybrid rocket propulsion 15.2.1 Introduction 15.2.2 Combustion process in hybrid rocket motor 15.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of hybrid rocket motors 15.2.4 High-regression-rate fuels for hybrid rockets 15.2.5 Scalability of hybrid rocket engine 15.2.6 Developments in hybrid rocket motor technology and its status References CH016.pdf Chapter 16 Current trends in liquid and gel rocket propulsion 16.1 Liquid rocket engines 16.1.1 Introduction 16.1.2 Feed system for liquid propellants 16.1.3 Injectors utilized in liquid propulsion systems 16.1.4 Advances toward improved mixing and atomization 16.1.5 Throttling in liquid rocket engines 16.1.6 Developmental trends of liquid propellant rockets 16.1.7 Development of green liquid propellants 16.2 Cryogenic rocket propulsion 16.2.1 Applications 16.2.2 Safety issues 16.2.3 Problems associated with cryogenic propulsion systems 16.2.4 Combustion instabilities in cryogenic rocket engines 16.2.5 Effect of low temperature of hydrogen on cryogenic engines 16.3 Gel propulsion systems 16.3.1 Introduction 16.3.2 Formulation of gel propellants 16.3.3 Performance of heterogeneous propellants 16.3.4 Ignition and combustion of gels and metallized fuels 16.3.5 Rheology and flow characteristics of gelled systems 16.3.6 Spray characteristics and atomization of gels References CH017.pdf Chapter 17 Recent progress in the development of less toxic pyrotechnic smoke compositions for military applications 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Smoke compositions for visual obscuration 17.2.1 Common evaluation criteria and general formulation strategies 17.2.2 Characteristics of existing compositions and methods 17.2.3 Recent formulation developments 17.3 Smoke compositions for signaling 17.3.1 Characteristics of existing compositions 17.3.2 Recent formulation efforts 17.4 Toxicology of smokes 17.4.1 Exposure and inhalation toxicity testing 17.4.2 Screening smokes 17.4.3 Battlefield effects smokes 17.4.4 Colored smoke dyes 17.5 Conclusion References