Virtual prototyping & bio manufacturing in medical applications

Description

Preface Contents 1 Optimised Vascular Network for Skin Tissue Engineering by Additive Manufacturing 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Design of Vascular Network 1.2.1 Macro-Scale Design 1.2.2 Micro-Scale Design 1.2.2.1 Branch Angle and Vessel Diameters 1.2.2.2 WSS and Recirculation Areas 1.2.2.3 Daughter Vessel Asymmetry Ratio 1.3 The Application: Optimised Vascular Network Design for Skin Tissue Engineering 1.3.1 Additive Manufacturing Technologies for Biomanufacturing 1.3.2 Materials and Methods 1.3.3 In Vitro Testing 1.4 Results and Discussion 1.4.1 Cytotoxicity Testing for Photoinitiators 1.4.2 The Printed Vascular Network 1.4.3 In Vitro Testing 1.5 Conclusion References 2 Virtual Bone Surgery 2.1 Introduction 2.2 State of the Art in Bone Surgery Simulation 2.2.1 Current State of Surgical Simulation 2.2.2 Key Technologies 2.3 Medical Image Processing and Segmentation 2.3.1 Imaging Procedures 2.3.2 Image Processing 2.4 Geometric Modeling and Data Manipulation 2.4.1 Volume Modeling 2.4.2 Data Manipulation 2.5 Graphic Rendering 2.5.1 Surface Rendering 2.5.2 Volume Rendering 2.6 Haptic Rendering 2.6.1 Force Modeling 2.6.2 Collision Detection and Force Generation 2.7 Auditory Rendering 2.7.1 Sound Modeling 2.7.2 Sound Rendering 2.8 Conclusion References 3 Three-Dimensional Medical Imaging: Conceptsand Applications 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Acquisition 3.2.1 Computer Tomography (CT) 3.2.2 Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) 3.2.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 3.2.4 Ultrasonography (US) 3.2.5 Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) 3.3 Preprocessing 3.3.1 Noise Filtering 3.3.2 Edge Detection 3.3.3 Contrast Enhancement 3.4 Segmentation 3.4.1 Thresholding 3.4.2 Region Growing 3.4.3 Watershed 3.5 Representation 3.5.1 Quadtree 3.5.2 Pyramid (Multiscale Imaging) 3.6 Volume Rendering 3.6.1 Isosurface Rendering 3.6.2 Direct Volume Rendering 3.7 3D Printing and Biofabrication 3.8 Conclusions References 4 Computer Aided Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Requirements of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds 4.1.2 Application of RP in TE Scaffold Fabrication 4.2 Methodology 4.2.1 Concept Verification 4.2.2 Validation of CASTS 4.2.3 Duraform™ Polyamide Scaffolds 4.2.4 Biomaterial Scaffolds 4.2.4.1 Poly-Ether-Ether-Ketone (PEEK) and Hydroxyapatite (HA) 4.2.4.2 Polycaprolactone (PCL) 4.3 Results and Discussion 4.3.1 Pure PEEK Scaffolds 4.3.2 PEEK-HA Composite Scaffolds 4.3.3 Polycaprolactone (PCL) Scaffolds 4.4 Conclusion References 5 Additive Biomanufacturing Processes to Fabricate Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Conventional Fabrication Techniques 5.3 Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Tissue Engineering 5.3.1 Photo-Fabrication Process 5.3.1.1 Vat-Photopolymerization 5.3.1.2 Non-chemical Photo-Fabrication Processes 5.3.2 Powder-Bed Fusion Process 5.3.3 Extrusion-Based Processes 5.3.4 Binder Jetting Processes 5.4 Conclusions References 6 Engineering Oriented Scaffolds for Directing NeuronalRegeneration 6.1 Introduction: Neuronal Regeneration Following Injury 6.1.1 Introduction to the Nervous System 6.1.1.1 Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 6.1.1.2 Anatomy of the PNS 6.1.1.3 Support Cells of the Nervous System 6.1.1.4 Neuronal Pathfinding 6.1.2 Peripheral Nerve Injuries 6.1.2.1 Current Therapies and Challenges 6.1.3 Spinal Cord Injury 6.1.3.1 Current Therapies and Challenges 6.1.4 Design Criteria for Tissue Engineered Nerve Regeneration Platform 6.2 Engineering Aligned Neuronal Guidance Therapies 6.2.1 Material of Choice 6.2.2 Advanced Fabrication Techniques for Oriented Scaffolds 6.2.2.1 Aligned Substrates 6.2.2.2 Aligned Nerve Guidance Conduits and Channels 6.2.2.3 Aligned Gels and Conduit-Fillers 6.3 Epilogue: Considerations for Optimal Regeneration Platforms- a Combined Approach References 7 The Electrospinning Process 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The Electrospinning Process 7.3 Process Classification 7.3.1 Solution Versus Melt Electrospinning 7.3.2 Emulsion and Suspension Electrospinning 7.3.3 Co-axial and Multi-jet Electrospinning 7.3.4 Near-Field Electrospinning 7.4 The Effect of Material and Processing Parameters 7.4.1 Material Parameters 7.4.1.1 Viscosity, Molecular Weight and Concentration 7.4.1.2 Surface Tension 7.4.1.3 Conductivity 7.4.2 Process Parameters 7.4.2.1 Electric Field and Flow Rate 7.4.2.2 Tip to Collector Distance 7.4.3 Ambient Parameters (Humidity and Temperature) 7.5 Electrospinning Variants 7.6 Materials References 8 A Review of Hybrid Biomanufacturing Systems Applied in Tissue Regeneration 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Additive Biomanufacturing 8.2.1 Inkjet-Based Processes 8.2.2 Material Extrusion 8.2.3 Laser Direct Writing 8.3 Hybrid Techniques 8.3.1 Basic Multi-Head Bioprinters 8.3.2 Semi-Hybrid Multi-Head Bioprinters 8.3.3 Fully Hybrid Biomanufacturing Systems 8.3.4 Development of Advanced Printing Heads 8.4 Conclusions References 9 Low Back Pain: Additive Manufacturing for Disc Degeneration and Herniation Repair 9.1 Low Back Pain: A Global Problem 9.2 Degenerative Disc Disease and Herniation 9.2.1 Historical Perspective 9.2.2 The IVD Degeneration Cycle 9.2.3 Annular Fissures 9.2.4 Disc Herniation 9.3 Conservative Management Versus Surgical Treatments for Lumbar Disc Herniation 9.4 Emerging Technologies for the Repair and/or Regeneration of Prolapsed and Herniated Discs 9.4.1 Recent Advances in Nucleus Pulposus Regeneration 9.4.2 Annulus Fibrosus Repair 9.4.2.1 Mechanical Closure Devices 9.4.2.2 Injectable Hydrogels 9.4.2.3 Electrospun Meshes 9.4.2.4 3D Printed Scaffolds 9.4.3 Combined AF–NP Repair Approaches 9.5 Conclusion References 10 A Review on Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing for Metallic Fixation Implants 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Bone Characteristics 10.2.1 Bone as a Material 10.2.2 Bone Types 10.2.3 Bone Healing 10.2.3.1 Indirect Bone Healing 10.2.3.2 Direct Bone Healing 10.3 Metallic Biomaterials 10.3.1 Titanium and Its Alloys 10.3.2 Stainless Steel 10.3.3 Cobalt Chromium 10.4 Powder Bed Fusion Techniques 10.4.1 Electron Beam Melting 10.4.1.1 Microstructure 10.4.1.2 Mechanical and Physical Properties 10.4.1.3 Biological Properties 10.4.2 Selective Laser Melting 10.4.2.1 Microstructure 10.4.2.2 Mechanical and Physical Properties 10.4.2.3 Biological Properties 10.5 Additive Manufactured Internal Bone Fixation Implants 10.6 Conclusions and Research Challenges References 11 Scaffold Design for Nerve Regeneration 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Neuroanatomy 11.2.1 Neuron 11.2.2 Central and Peripheral Nervous System 11.2.3 Nerve Damage and Regeneration 11.2.3.1 Peripheral Nerve Injuries 11.2.3.2 Nerve Injury Classification 11.2.3.3 Nerve Regeneration 11.2.4 Traditional Treatment Methods 11.2.4.1 Nerve Suture 11.2.4.2 Nerve Graft 11.3 Nerve Scaffold 11.3.1 Design Requirements 11.3.2 Fabrication Techniques 11.3.2.1 Conventional Techniques 11.3.2.2 Additive Manufacturing Techniques 11.4 Conclusion References Index