Biopolymer-Based Films and Coatings: Trends and Challenges

Description

With the growing concern for the environment and the rising price of crude oil, there is increasing demand for non-petroleum-based polymers from renewable resources. Biopolymer films have been regarded as potential replacements for synthetic films in food packaging due to a strong marketing trend toward environmentally friendly materials. Biopolymer-based films and coatings display good barrier properties, flexibility, transparency, economic profitability, and environmental compatibility. Therefore, they have successfully been used for packaging various food products. Biopolymer-Based Films and Coatings: Trends and Challenges elaborates on the recent methods and ingredients for making biodegradable films and coatings, as well as the current requirements for food security and environmental issues. This book also explores films and coatings prepared with essential oils, antimicrobial substances, and bioactive components that make up this active packaging. Films and coating chapters are based on biopolymers used to prepare films and coatings, that is, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and so on. This book provides a platform for researchers and industrialists on the basic and advanced concepts of films and coatings. Key Features: Provides a comprehensive analysis of recent findings on biopolymers (carbohydrate-, protein-, and lipid-) based films and coatings. Contains a wealth of new information on the properties, functionality, and applications of films and coatings. Presents possible active and functional components and ingredients for developing films and coatings. Guides start-up researchers on where to start the latest research work in packaging. It has been estimated that the global production of bioplastics is set to hike from ~2.11 in 2020 to ~2.87 million tonnes in 2025. Further, the demand for fresh, ready-to-eat, or semi-finished foods is increasing, and the need to maintain food safety and quality further exacerbates the challenges in the supply chain, especially with the globalization of food trade and the use of centralized processing facilities for food distribution. It is an urgent requirement to increase shelf life and reduce food product loss. Considering the great market demand for biodegradable material-based packaging systems, this book comes at an opportune time to enable researchers and food scientists to develop suitable solutions considering the sustainability and economic feasibility of the process. Cover Half Title Biopolymer-Based Films and Coatings: Trends and Challenges Copyright Contents Preface Editors Contributors 1. Properties and Applicability of Starch-Based Films 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Structure and Functions of Starch 1.2.1 Properties of Starches 1.2.1.1 Physicochemical Properties 1.2.1.2 Pasting Characteristics 1.2.1.3 Thermal Properties 1.2.1.4 Morphological Properties 1.3 Starch as a Sustainable Polymer 1.4 Preparation of Starch-Based Films 1.4.1 Casting Method 1.4.2 Extrusion Procedure 1.4.3 Blow Molding 1.5 Role of Plasticizers in Films and Coatings 1.6 Incorporation of Functional Compounds 1.7 Film Characteristics 1.7.1 Mechanical Characteristics 1.7.2 Barrier Properties 1.7.3 Solubility 1.7.4 Thickness of Films 1.8 Films from Modified Starches 1.9 Applications 1.10 Conclusion References 2. Cellulose-Based Eco-Friendly Films 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Packaging 2.2.1 Biodegradable Packaging 2.2.2 Intelligent Food Packaging 2.2.3 Active Food Packaging 2.2.4 Other Packaging Applications 2.3 Sorption Films (Aerogels) 2.3.1 Sorption Pads in Meat 2.3.2 Water Remediation Technology 2.3.2.1 Heavy Metal Chelation in Wastewater 2.3.2.2 Microplastics 2.3.2.3 Colorant or Dye Bioremediation in Water 2.4 Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Applications 2.5 Electronic Films or Coatings 2.6 Textile Applications 2.7 Conclusion References 3. Chitosan-Based Films and Coatings: Properties and Applications 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Chitosan: Origin, Structure, and Physicochemical and Biological Properties 3.2.1 Physicochemical and Biological Activities of Chitosan 3.3 Chitosan Film and Coating Properties 3.3.1 Mechanical Properties 3.3.2 Barrier Properties 3.3.3 Water Vapor Permeability (WVP) 3.3.4 Optical Properties 3.3.5 Thermal Stability 3.4 Chitosan-Based Films and Coatings 3.4.1 Plasticizers 3.4.2 Polysaccharides 3.4.2.1 Chitosan/Cellulose 3.4.2.2 Chitosan/Pectin 3.4.2.3 Chitosan/Carrageenan 3.4.2.4 Chitosan/Sodium Talginate 3.4.3 Proteins 3.4.3.1 Chitosan/Sodium Caseinate 3.4.3.2 Chitosan/Gelatin 3.4.3.3 Chitosan/Collagen 3.5 Applications of Chitosan-Based Films and Coatings 3.5.1 Chitosan-Based Films 3.5.2 Chitosan-Based Coatings 3.6 Conclusion Conficts of Interest References 4. Characterization of Novel Films and Coatings Based on Gums 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Classification of Films and Coatings 4.2.1 Polysaccharide-Based Films and Coatings 4.2.2 Protein-Based Films and Coatings 4.2.3 Lipid-Based Films and Coatings 4.3 Preparation Methods of Films and Coatings 4.4 Gums for Films and Coatings 4.5 Structure and Film-Forming Properties of Gums 4.5.1 Guar Gum 4.5.2 Fenugreek Gum 4.5.3 Locust Bean Gum 4.5.4 Tara Gum 4.5.5 ARABIC GUM 5.5.6 Gum Karaya 4.5.7 Gum Ghatti 4.5.8 Xanthan Gum 4.5.9 Konjac Gum 4.5.10 Gellan Gum 4.6 Application of Gum-Based Films and Coatings 4.7 Conclusion References 5. Development of Films and Coatings from Alginates Contents 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Extraction of Alginate from Seaweed 5.3 Derivatives of Alginates 5.4 Preparation of Films and Coatings from Alginates 5.4.1 Cross-Linking 5.4.2 Synthesis of Biofilms from Alginates 5.4.2.1 Biofilms (Alginate-Glycerol) Added with Oleic Acid without Cross-Linking 5.4.2.2 Biofilms (Alginate-Glycerol) without Addition of Oleic Acid and Cross-Linking 5.4.2.3 Biofilms (Alginate-Glycerol) Added with Oleic Acid and Cross-Linking 5.5 Use of Additives to Make Films and Coatings from Alginates 5.5.1 Nutraceuticals and Nutritional Improvements, Flavors, Pigments 5.5.2 Antioxidants and Antimicrobials 5.5.3 Anti-Browning Agents 5.5.4 Plasticizers 5.5.5 Surfactants 5.6 Application Methods 5.6.1 Mechanisms of Film Formation 5.6.2 Coating 5.6.2.1 Dipping Technique 5.6.2.2 Spraying 5.6.2.3 Vacuum Impregnation 5.7 Coatings with Sodium Alginate 5.7.1 Fruits and Vegetables 5.7.2 Effect of Sodium Alginate as a Multilayered Edible Coating on Fruits 5.7.3 Frozen and Fried Foods 5.7.4 Poultry Products 5.7.5 Sodium Alginate as a Functional Food Ingredient 5.7.6 Sodium Alginate in the Food Industry 5.7.6.1 Thickener and Emulsion 5.7.6.2 Stabilizer 5.7.6.3 Hydration 5.7.6.4 Coacervation 5.7.7 Alginates in Food Packaging 5.7.8 Application of Alginates during Transportation 5.7.9 Alginates in the Pharmaceutical Industry 5.7.9.1 Alginate Microparticles 5.8 Other Uses of Alginates 5.9 Future Trends and Challenges 5.10 Conclusion References 6. Bio-Based Materials for Food Packaging: A Green and Sustainable Technology Contents 6.1 Introduction 6.2 An Overview of Bio-Based Packaging Materials: Global Scenario 6.3 Processing of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 6.3.1 Wet Processing 6.3.2 Dry Processing 6.4 Bio-Based Food Packaging Materials 6.4.1 Bio-Based Polymers 6.4.1.2 Hemicellulose 6.4.1.3 Chitosan/Chitin 6.4.1.4 Lignin 6.4.1.5 Starch 6.4.1.6 Pectin 6.4.1.7 Alginate 6.4.1.8 Proteins 6.4.1.9 Collagen and Gelatin 6.4.1.10 Wheat Gluten and Soy Protein 6.4.2 Bio-Based Nanomaterials 6.4.2.1 Cellulose Nanofibers 6.4.2.2 Cellulose Nanocrystals 6.4.2.3 Bacterial Cellulose 6.4.3 Bio-Based Fibers 6.4.3.1 Paper 6.4.3.2 Other Natural Fibers and Their Composites 6.4.4 Synthetic Bio-Based, Biodegradable Polymers for Food Packaging 6.4.4.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 6.4.4.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 6.4.4.3 Polycaprolactone (PCL) 6.4.4.4 Polybutylene Succinate (PBS) 6.4.4.5 Polyglycolide (PGA) 6.4.4.6 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) 6.5 Sustainable Packaging Materials 6.5.1 Based on Wood Fiber 6.5.2 Paper and Paperboard 6.5.3 Cellulose Nanomaterials (CNs) 6.5.4 Cellulose Nanomaterial Films 6.5.5 Bioplastic Materials 6.6 Properties 6.6.1 Tensile Strength 6.6.2 Water Vapor Transmission Rate 6.6.3 Oxygen Transmission Rate 6.6.4 Melting Point 6.6.5 Thermal Stability 6.7 Applications 6.7.1 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 6.7.2 Edible Packaging 6.7.3 Active Packaging 6.8 Future Perspectives 6.9 Conclusion References 7. Soy Protein–Based Films and Coatings: Functionality and Characterization Contents 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Chemistry of Films 7.3 Development of Soy Protein–Based Edible Films and Their Functionalization 7.4 Development of Edible Coatings Derived from Soy Proteins 7.4.1 Dipping 7.4.2 Spray Coating 7.4.3 Electrostatic Spraying 7.4.4 Fluidized-Bed Coating 7.5 Functionalization and Modification of Films and Coatings Derived from Soy Proteins 7.5.1 Physical Modifications 7.5.1.1 Plasticization (Thermoplastic Processing) 7.5.1.2 Ultrasonic Processing 7.5.1.3 Compression Molding 7.5.1.4 Extrusion 7.5.2 Chemical Modifications 7.5.2.1 Acetylation 7.5.2.2 Succinylation 7.5.2.3 Grafting 7.5.3 Biochemical Modification by Enzymatic Hydrolysis 7.6 Characterization of Soy Protein–Based Films and Coatings 7.6.1 Mechanical Properties 7.6.2 Thermal Properties 7.6.3 Barrier Properties 7.6.4 Thickness 7.7 Mechanisms of Food Protection by Soy Protein–Based Films and Edible Coatings 7.8 Application of Soy Protein–Based Films and Edible Coatings in Improving Shelf Life of Food Products 7.9 Future Recommendations and Research Gaps References 8. Development and Structural Characterization of Gluten-Based Films and Coatings Contents 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Structure of Gluten Films 8.3 Composition of Gluten Films 8.4 Development of Gluten Films and Coatings 8.4.1 Solvent Dispersion (Casting) 8.4.2 Thermoplastic Process 8.5 Development of Composite Films and Coatings 8.6 Properties of Gluten Films 8.6.1 Water Vapor Permeability (WVP) 8.6.2 Oxygen Permeability 8.6.3 Tensile Strength and Percentage Elongation at Break 8.6.4 Mechanical Properties 8.7 Modifications of Gluten Films 8.7.1 Aging 8.7.2 Chemical Treatment 8.7.3 Physical Treatment 8.7.3.1 Treatment Temperature 8.7.3.2 UV Radiation 8.7.3.3 Gamma Rays 8.8 Applications of Gluten Films 8.9 Trends and Recent Developments in Gluten Films 8.10 Challenges toward the Development of Gluten Films 8.11 Limitations of Wheat Gluten Films 8.11.1 Water Sensitivity 8.11.2 Aging 8.11.3 Physical Aging: Migration of Additives from the Matrix 8.11.4 Chemical Aging: Oxidation 8.12 Strategies to Enhance Film Properties and Lifetime 8.12.1 Plasticizers 8.12.2 Cross-Linking 8.12.3 Blending with Other Constituents 8.13 Conclusion References 9. Edible Films and Coatings with Incorporation of Lipids Contents 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Overview 9.1.2 Historical Background 9.1.3 Edible Films/Packing and Its Importance 9.1.4 Chemistry of Edible Films 9.1.5 Incorporation of Lipids 9.2 Synthesis 9.2.1 Edible Films 9.2.2 Film Preparation Using Different Lipid Incorporation, Additives, Emulsifiers, and Plasticizers 9.3 Edible Film Properties 9.3.1 Mechanical Properties 9.3.2 Barrier Properties 9.3.3 Water Barrier Properties and Glass Transition Temperature 9.3.4 Functional Properties 9.3.5 Light Absorption and Opacity 9.3.6 Permeability of Gas 9.4 Disadvantages of Using Lipids 9.5 Applications 9.5.1 Vegetables and Fruits 9.5.2 Nuts 9.5.3 Meat and Their Products 9.5.4 Bakery Products 9.5.5 Cheese 9.6 Trends 9.6.1 Recent Trends 9.6.2 Future Trends 9.7 Conclusion References 10. Essential Oil–Based Eco-Friendly Coating Materials Contents 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Essential Oils and Types of Essential Oils 10.2.1 Components and Functional Activities of Essential Oils 10.3 Essential Oil–Based Active Film/Coating Systems 10.4 Methods of Application of Essential Oil Films/Coatings 10.4.1 Dipping 10.4.2 Spraying 10.4.3 Spreading 10.4.4 Vacuum Impregnation Technique 10.4.5 Layer-by-Layer Method 10.4.6 Foaming 10.4.7 Thin-Film Hydration 10.5 Types of Essential Oil Films/Coatings 10.5.1 Polysaccharide-Based Essential Oil Films/Coatings 10.5.2 Lipid-Based Essential Oil Films/Coatings 10.5.3 Protein-Based Essential Oil Films/Coatings 10.5.4 Composite-Based Essential Oil Films/Coatings 10.6 Effect of Incorporating EOs on Properties of Films/Coatings 10.6.1 Mechanical Properties 10.6.2 Barrier Properties 10.6.3 Optical Properties 10.6.4 Chemical Properties 10.6.4.1 Migration of Active Compounds 10.6.4.2 Flavors and Aroma Transfer 10.6.4.3 Antioxidant Properties 10.6.5 Thermal Properties 10.6.6 Morphological and Structural Properties 10.6.7 Antimicrobial Properties 10.6.7.1 Mechanisms of Action 10.6.7.2 Shelf Life of Essential Oil Films/Coatings 10.8 Economic Viability and Environmental Sustainability of Using Essential Oil Films/Coatings 10.9 Challenges and Limitations of Using Essential Oil Films/Coatings 10.10 Legal Aspects of Use of Essential Oil Films/Coatings 10.11 Future Perspectives 10.12 Conclusion References 11. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA): Production, Properties, and Packaging Applications Contents 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Production of PHAs 11.2.1 Sources Involved in the Production of PHA 11.2.1.1 Microorganisms for PHA Production 11.2.1.1.1 Role of Gram-Negative Bacteria in PHA Production 11.2.1.1.2 Role of Gram-Positive Bacteria in PHA Production 11.2.1.1.3 Role of Archaea Bacteria in PHA Production 11.2.1.2 Substrates for PHA Production 11.2.2 Processing Conditions Involved in PHA Production 11.2.2.1 Microbial Fermentation Techniques 11.2.2.2 Extraction and Purification of PHA 11.2.2.3 Characterization of PHA 11.3 Properties of PHAs 11.3.1 Physical Properties 11.3.2 Molecular Weight 11.3.3 Crystallinity 11.3.4 Mechanical Properties 11.3.5 Thermal Properties 11.3.6 Biodegradability 11.4 Applications of PHA 11.4.1 PHA Used in Nanocomposites 11.4.2 PHA Used in Multilayer Films 11.4.3 PHA Used in Paper and Cardboard Coatings 11.4.4 PHA Used in Active Packaging 11.4.5 PHA Used in Food Packaging 11.5 Conclusion References 12. Recent Advances in the Development of PHB (Polyhydroxybutyrate)-Based Packaging Materials Contents 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Packaging Materials 12.2.1 Biopolymer-Based Packaging Materials 12.2.2 Types of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 12.2.2.1. Synthetically Produced Biopolymers • Polylactic Acid • Polyethylene Furanoate • Polybutylene Succinate 12.2.2.2 Non-Synthetically Produced Biopolymers • Polyhydroxyalkanoate • Polyhydroxybutyrate 12.2.2.3 Biomass Products as Packaging Material • Polysaccharides • Proteins 12.3 Biocomposites 12.4 Polyhydroxybutyrate 12.5 Properties of PHB 12.6 Production Strategies of PHB 12.7 Microbial Production of PHB 12.8 Production of PHB by Engineering Microbial Cells 12.8.1 Solvent Casting 12.8.2 Extrusion 12.8.3 Electrospinning 12.8.4 Compression Molding 12.9 Blends of PHB 12.10 Antimicrobial Activity of PHB 12.11 Techniques for Production of PHB Biocomposites 12.12 PHB in Active Packaging • Active Scavenging Systems • Active Releasing Systems 12.13 Other Applications of PHB 12.14 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 13. Preparation, Characterization, and Evaluation of Antibacterial Properties of Poly(3-Hydroxybutarate-Co-3-Hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV)-Based Films and Coatings Contents 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Preparation of PHBV-Based Films 13.3 Preparation of PHBV-Based Coatings 13.4 Characterization Techniques of PHBV-Based Films and Coatings 13.5 Antibacterial Properties of PHBV-Based Films and Coatings 13.6 Applications of PHBV-Based Films and Coatings 13.6.1 Biomedical Applications 13.6.2 Food Packaging Applications References 14. Pullulan-Based Films and Coatings for Food Packaging: Applications and Challenges Contents 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Structure of Pullulan 14.3 Properties of Pullulan 14.4 Production of Pullulan 14.5 Modification of Pullulan 14.6 Modification Methods for Pullulan-Based Packaging 14.7 Application of Pullulan in Edible Films 14.8 Application of Pullulan in Edible Coatings 14.9 Other Applications in Food Packaging 14.10 Future Trends, Opportunities, and Challenges References 15. Bionanocomposites in Food and Medicine Contents 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Biopolymers Popularly Used in the Preparation of Bionanocomposites 15.2.1 Carbohydrate-Based Biopolymers 15.2.1.2 Chitosan 15.2.1.3 Starch 15.2.1.4 Alginate 15.2.1.5 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 15.2.1.6 Pectin 15.2.2 Protein-Based Biopolymers 15.2.2.1 Wheat Gluten 15.2.2.2 Soy Protein 15.2.2.3 Gelatin 15.2.2.4 Corn Zein 15.2.2.5 Whey Protein 15.2.2.6 Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) 15.3 Fillers and Reinforcements Popularly Used in the Preparation of Bionanocomposites 15.3.1 Non-Metal Nanoparticles 15.3.1.1 Cellulose Nanostructures 15.3.1.2 Clay Nanoparticles 15.3.1.3 Selenium Nanoparticles (SeNPs) 15.3.2 Metal Nanoparticles 15.3.2.1 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 15.3.2.2 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnONPs) 15.3.2.3 Graphene Oxide (GO) 15.3.2.4 Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) 15.3.2.5 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 15.4 Fabrication of Bionanocomposites 15.4.2 Solution Intercalation 15.4.3 Melt Intercalation 15.4.4 Electrospinning 15.4.5 Extrusion 15.4.6 Compression Molding 15.5 Bionanocomposite Coating Preparation 15.6 Popular Bionanocomposites for Food Applications 15.6.1 Food Packaging 15.6.1.1 Improved Packaging 15.6.1.2 Active Packaging 15.6.1.2.1 Antioxidant and Scavenging Active Packaging 15.6.1.2.2 Antimicrobial Active Packaging 15.6.1.3 Smart Packaging 15.6.2 Food Processing 15.6.2.1 Edible Food Coatings 15.6.2.2 Nanoparticles Incorporated in Food 15.7 Public Acceptance of Nanoparticles in Their Food 15.8 Popular Bionanocomposites in Medical Applications 15.8.1 Bionanocomposites in Transdermal Drug Delivery 15.8.2 Bionanocomposites in Tissue Engineering and Implants 15.8.3 Bionanocomposites in Wound Dressings 15.9 Regulatory and Safety Issues of Using Bionanocomposites in Food 15.10 Conclusion References 16. Nanostructured Film and Coating Materials: A Novel Approach in Packaging Contents 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Nanomaterials 16.1.2 Inorganic Fillers: Physicochemical Properties and Recent Innovations in Food Packaging 16.1.3 Other Layered Minerals of Interest 16.1.4 Metals and Metal Oxide NPs in Films 16.1.5 Graphene 16.2 Fabrication of Bionanocomposites 16.2.2 Melt Processing 16.2.3 Solution Casting 16.2.4 Sonication 16.2.5 High-Shear Mixing Methods 16.3 Aspects of Manufacturing Bionanocomposite Coatings from a Technological Perspective 16.3.1 Compatibility of the Polymer with the Filler 16.3.2 Rheological Properties 16.3.3 Optical Characteristics 16.3.4 Surface Characteristics and the Scalping Effect 16.3.5 Gas Barrier Properties 16.3.6 Antioxidant Characteristics 16.4 Applications of Nanocoatings and Nanocomposite Films 16.4.1 Packaging Industry 16.4.1.1 Packaging Using Nanocoatings and Ultrathin Films 16.4.1.1.1 Food Packaging 16.4.1.2 Nanocomposite Films Based on Natural Biopolymers • Polysaccharide Films • Protein Films • Lipid Films • Composite Films 16.4.1.3 Additives and Inorganic Fillers 16.4.1.4 Potential Applications of Nanofilms and Coatings in Active Packaging of Food 16.4.1.5 Antimicrobial Activity of Chitosan • Chitosan and Different Carbohydrate Blends • Chitosan-Based Polymeric Antimicrobial Composites and Their Blend 16.4.1.5.1 Natural Antimicrobials 16.4.1.5.2 Metal- and Metal Oxide Nanostructure–Based Antimicrobials 16.4.1.6 Nanoedible Films in the Food Packaging Industry • Edible Films with Nanostarch Reinforcement • Edible Films with Nanocellulose Reinforcement • Edible Films with Nanochitosan/Nanochitin Reinforcement • Edible Films with Nanoprotein Reinforcement • Edible Films with Nanolipid Reinforcement 16.5 Conclusion References 17. Biopolymer Production Methods and Regulatory Aspects Contents 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Biopolymer Preparation Methods 17.3 Traditional Techniques for Biopolymer Preparation 17.3.1 Film Solution Casting Methods 17.3.2 Extrusion 17.3.3 Injection Molding 17.3.4 Thermoforming 17.3.5 Foaming Process 17.4 Novel Techniques for Biopolymer Preparation 17.4.1 Electrospinning 17.4.2 3D Printing 17.4.3 Reactive Extrusion 17.4.4 Nanotechnology 17.5 Traditional Techniques for Coatings in Biopolymers 17.5.1 Size Presses 17.5.2 Rod Coating 17.5.3 Air Knife Coating 17.5.4 Blade Coating 17.6 Advance Techniques for Coatings 17.6.1 Dip Coating 17.6.2 Slot-Die Coating 17.6.3 Curtain Coating 17.6.4 Electrostatic Powder Coating 17.6.5 Spray Coating 17.7 Regulatory Aspects of Bio-Based Packaging 17.7.1 Definition of Biodegradable and Compostable 17.7.2 Standards of Biodegradability 17.7.3 The Norms and Standards for Soil Biodegradability Testing 17.7.4 Biodegradable Plastic Testing Acknowledgments References 18. Food Contamination from Packaging Material Contents 18.1 Introduction 18.1.1 Plastic Packaging 18.1.2 Paper and Board Packaging 18.2 Migration Effect 18.2.1 Stages of the Migration Effect 18.2.1.1 Diffusion in the Polymer 18.2.1.2 Solvation at the Polymer–Food Interface 18.2.1.3 Dispersion in Bulk Food 18.2.2 Food and Migration 18.2.2.1 Compatibility 18.2.2.2 Solubility 18.2.3 Factors Affecting the Rate of Migration 18.2.3.1 Duration of Food Contact 18.2.3.2 Temperature of Food 18.2.3.3 Mobility of Chemical Substances 18.3 Majorly Used Plastics and Their Hazards 18.3.1 Polyvinyl Chloride 18.3.2 Polystyrene 18.3.3 Bisphenol A Diglycidyl Ether 18.3.4 Isocyanate 18.3.5 Caprolactam 18.3.6 Polyethylene Terephthalate Oligomer 18.3.7 Polyolefins 18.4 Migration from Paper and Paperboards 18.4.1 Dioxins 18.4.2 Benzophenone 18.4.3 Nitrosamines 18.5 Migration from Metal Packaging 18.5.1 Tin 18.5.2 Chromium 18.5.3 Lead 18.5.4 Aluminum 18.6 Other Contaminants 18.6.1 Plasticizers 18.6.2 Thermal Stabilizers 18.6.3 Slip Additives 18.6.4 Light Stabilizers 18.6.5 Antioxidants 18.6.6 Decomposition Products 18.6.7 Benzene and Other Volatiles 18.6.8 Vapor Contaminants 18.6.9 Inks 18.7 Permissible Quantities 18.7.1 Indian Standards 18.7.2 European Union Standards 18.7.3 USFDA Standards 18.8 Effects of Processing on Migration 18.8.1 High-Pressure Processing 18.8.2 Microwave Processing 18.8.3 Irradiation 18.9 Migration Testing and Analysis 18.9.1 Mimicking Food Contact 18.9.2 Overall Migration Testing 18.9.3 Specific Migration Testing 18.9.4 Residual Migration Testing 18.9.5 Other Tests 18.10 Prevention of Migration 18.10.1 Multilayer Packaging 18.10.2 Use of Functional Barriers 18.10.3 Future Patterns 18.10.4 What’s Next? 18.11 Plant-Based or Edible Packaging References