All Source Positioning, Navigation, and Timing

Description

All Source Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Contents Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview 1.1 Why All Source Positioning, Navigation, and Timing? 1.2 Complementary PNT Technologies and All Source PNT 1.3 Generic All Source PNT Architecture 1.4 Structure of This Book References Chapter 2 Foundations 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Coordinate Frames 2.3 Mathematical Representation of Attitude and Coordinate Transformations 2.3.1 Inner and Cross-Product-Related Symbols 2.3.2 DCM 2.3.3 Euler Angles 2.3.4 Rotation Around an Arbitrary Axis 2.3.5 Quaternions 2.4 ECI Frame Revisited 2.4.1 Precession of Earth Axis of Rotation 2.4.2 Nutation of Earth Rotational Axis 2.4.3 Standard J2000 ECI to True of Date ECI Transformation 2.5 Earth Model, Earth Gravity Field Model, and Earth Magnetic Field Model 2.5.1 Earth Model 2.5.2 Earth Gravitational Model and World Magnetic Model 2.5.3 Conversion of the Geodetic Position to the ECEF Position 2.5.4 Conversion of the ECEF to the Geodetic Position 2.5.5 Exact Equation-Based Algorithm for the ECEF to Geodetic Conversion 2.5.6 Earth Gravity Field Model 2.5.3 Earth Magnetic Field Models 2.6 Kalman Filters and Variations 2.6.1 Kalman Filter 2.6.2 Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) 2.6.3 Generic Propagation/Prediction/Correction Architecture and UKF/Particle Filters 2.6.4 Practical Issues in the Application of the Kalman Filters References Chapter 3 Various Propagation-Based Solutions 3.1 Propagation Model of Constant and Almost Constant Parameters 3.1.1 Random Walk and First-Order Markov Process 3.1.2 Differential and Algebraic Lyapunov Equations 3.2 Clock and Clock Propagation and Error Models 3.2.1 Overview 3.2.2 Time and Frequency Errors, Allan Variance, and Power Spectral Density (PSD) 3.2.3 Rational Model for Clock Propagation 3.3 Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) Gyro and Accelerometer Error Parameter Models 3.4 Attitude Propagation and Error Models 3.4.1 Angular Velocity and Attitude Kinematics 3.4.2 Attitude Propagation/Numerical Integration Algorithms 3.4.3 Euler Angle Attitude Propagation 3.4.4 Attitude Propagation Error Models 3.5 Body Frame Speed and Attitude/Heading Sensor-Based Navigation 3.5.1 Introduction 3.5.2 Navigation Equations 3.5.3 Error Models 3.6 Inertial Navigation and Error Models 3.6.1 Introduction 3.6.2 ECI Frame Navigation Equations and Error Models 3.6.3 ECEF Frame (or Other Earth Fixed Frame) Navigation Equations and Error Equations 3.6.4 Local-Level Frame Inertial Navigation Equations and Error Equations References Chapter 4 Various Measurement-Based Solutions 4.1 Introduction 4.2 PNT Using Range and Range Rate Measurements 4.2.1 Two-Way Ranging and Time Transfer 4.2.2 Simple Range-Based Positioning 4.2.3 Range-Only Network Collaborative PNT 4.3 PNT Using Pseudo-Range Measurement 4.3.1 Synchronized One-Way Ranging (Pseudo-Range) and PNT (GNSS) 4.3.2 Asynchronous One-Way Ranging (Pseudo-Range) and PNT (SOOP) 4.4 Position and Attitude Determination Using Angle Measurements 4.4.1 Introduction 4.4.2 Attitude Determination Using Angle Measurements 4.4.3 Position and Attitude Determination from Angle Measurements 4.5 Generic Terrain Reference 4.5.1 Simplified Case: The Sensor on the Perfect Platform 4.5.2 Strapdown Sensors: Earth Gravity Anomaly and Earth Magnetic Field 4.5.3 Strapdown Sensors: Slant Range Sensor 4.6 Geo-Referenced Image-Based Navigation: Measurement Equations 4.6.1 Geo-Referenced Image as Collection of Image Anchor Points 4.6.2 Measurement Model for Image Anchor Points References Chapter 5 All Source PNT Solution: Integration Through Kalman Filters 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Kalman Filter and All Source PNT Algorithm Architecture 5.3 Fault and Threat Management Architecture 5.3.1 PFA and PMD 5.3.2 Reducing Both PFA and PMA at the Same Time by the Persistency Test 5.3.3 Containment Versus Response 5.3.4 Fault Detection, Containment, Isolation, and Response at Each of the Four Levels 5.4 Steps to Build an All Source PNT System References Chapter 6 Integrated Clock 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Architecture 6.3 Propagation Solution and Linearized Error Model 6.4 Updates for Integrated Clock 6.5 Integrated Clock Simulation Example References Chapter 7 Spacecraft Attitude Determination 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Stellar Inertial Attitude Determination (SIAD) 7.2.1 System Concept 7.2.2 The SIAD Architecture 7.2.3 Propagation Algorithms and Error Models 7.2.4 Measurement Equations and Error Models 7.2.5 Direct Star Identification and Star-Catalog Near-Neighbor Criteria 7.2.6 Aberration Error Correction 7.2.7 SAA Algorithm: An Example 7.2.8 Star Catalog 7.2.9 Star-Tracker Orientation and Configuration Considerations 7.3 Sun Sensor-Based Attitude Determination 7.3.1 The Concept 7.3.2 The Sun Sensor as an Additional Sensor for Normal Attitude Determination 7.3.3 The Sun Sensor for Attitude Determination to Support Sun-Pointing and Sun Acquisition 7.4 GPS Carrier-Phase-Based Attitude Determination 7.4.1 Introduction 7.4.2 Architecture 7.4.3 Attitude Initialization and Initial Ambiguity Resolution 7.4.4 GPS Carrier-Phase Measurements as Update and Ambiguity Maintenance References Chapter 8 Orbit Determination 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Orbit Determination Architecture 8.3 Propagation Algorithms and Error Models 8.4 Measurement Equations and Error Models 8.4.1 Range Measurement from Ground or Space Objects (Crosslinks) 8.4.2 Angle Measurement from a Ground Telescope or a Spaceborne {AU: Should this be “Space-Based”?} Camera 8.4.3 GPS-Based Orbit Determination References Chapter 9 Terrain Referenced Navigation 9.1 Introduction 9.2 TRN Architecture 9.3 Propagation Algorithms and Error Models 9.4 Measurement Equations and Error Models 9.4.1 Baro Altimeter Update 9.4.2 Radar Altimeter Update 9.4.3 Slant Range Update 9.3.4 Simulation Examples References Chapter 10 Modern Celestial Navigation 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Fundamental Principles of Celestial Navigation (and Related Applications) 10.3 Observation of the Stars and the RSO: Difficulties and Solutions 10.3.1 Cloud and Cloud Avoidance 10.3.2 Daytime Star Observations/Day Time Capable Star Tracker 10.3.3 LEO RSO Observation: Scarcity and Midnight Gap 10.4 Example Configurations and General Architecture 10.4.1 Example Designs and Choices of Technology 10.4.2 General Architecture 10.5 Propagation Algorithms and Error Models 10.6 Measurement Equations and Error Models 10.7 Example Simulation Results References Chapter 11 Image and Vision-Based Navigation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Image and Vision-Based Navigation Architecture 11.3 Camera Image Preprocessing Algorithms 11.3.1 Overview 11.3.2 Image Intensity Dynamic Range Adjustment and Equalization 11.3.3 Camera Calibration and Image Correction by Calibration Parameters 11.4 Map-Based Image and Vision Navigation 11.4.1 Architecture Variations 11.4.2 Output Prediction, Registration Matching, and the Correlation Algorithm 11.4.3 Propagation Algorithms and Error Models 11.4.4 Measurement Equations and Error Models 11.5 SLAM-Based Image and Vision Navigation 11.5.1 The Concept 11.5.2 EKF-SLAM 11.6 Visual Odometry 11.6.1 The Concept 11.6.2 Deriving Motion Information from Measured Landmarks over Consecutive Frames 11.6.3 Attitude and Position Propagation Using Visual Odometry References Chapter 12 Gravity Anomaly and Magnetic Anomaly Referenced Navigation 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Generic TRN: Fundamental Performance Drivers 12.3 Gravimeter, GGI, and Magnetometers 12.3.1 Gravimeters 12.3.2 GGI 12.4 Earth Gravity Anomaly and Magnetic Anomaly Model and Database 12.4.1 Earth Gravity Field and Gravity Gradient 12.5 Architecture 12.6 Propagation Algorithms and Error Models 12.7 Measurement Equations and Error Models 12.7.1 Strapdown GGI Update 12.7.2 Single-Axis Gravity Anomaly Update 12.7.3 Scalar Magnetometer Update 12.8 Simulation Examples References Chapter 13 Collaborative PNT 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Collaborative PNT Architecture 13.2.1 Generic Kalman Filter Architecture for a Network Collaborative Estimator 13.2.2 Algorithm and Equations for ITNS Extended Kalman Filter 13.2.3 Algorithm and Equations for the LWIN EKF 13.2.4 Two Types of Collaborative Measurements 13.3 Collaborative Time Synchronization and NTP and PTP 13.4 Collaboration with LOS, AOA, and DOA and Range Measurements 13.4.1 LWIN Equations 13.4.2 ITNS Equations 13.4.3 Linearized Equations 13.4.4 Integration with Inertial Navigation: The ITNS Approach {AU: Edits correct?} 13.4.5 Integration with Inertial Navigation: The LWIN Approach 13.4.6 Simulation Example 13.5 Collaboration with Range Measurements Only 13.5.1 Nonlinear and Linearized Measurement Equations 13.5.2 The ITNS Approach 13.5.3 IIN: The LWIN Approach 13.5.4 Range-Only Least Square Solution 13.5.5 ITNS Approach 13.5.6 LWIN Approach References Chapter 14 Signal of Opportunity PNT 14.1 Introduction 14.1.1 The Received Signal Strength (RSS) 14.1.2 The AOA 14.1.3 TOA 14.1.4 FOA 14.1.5 TDOA and FDOA 14.2 Architecture of TDOA and FDOA SOOP PNT System 14.3 TDOA and FDOA Measurement by Cross-Correlation 14.4 Receiver PNT Using TOA Pseudo-Range Measurement Without a Reference Receiver 14.5 SOOP PNT with a Reference Receiver 14.6 SOOP PNT Integrated with Inertial and All Source PNT 14.6.1 INS Nonlinear Algorithm 14.6.2 Measurement Equations and Error Models References Chapter 15 Real-Time Systems and the Software Development Approach and Applications to PNT Systems 15.1 Introduction 15.2 The Architecture of Real-Time Systems 15.2.1 What Is Architecture All About? 15.2.2 System Architecture Development Approach 15.2.3 Architecture Design Patterns, Tactics, and Examples 15.3 Open Architecture and Open Architecture Standard 15.3.1 Overview 15.3.2 FACE 15.3.3 VICTORY 15.3.4 The DoD PNT Architecture Standard (PNTA) 15.3.5 A Proprietary Vendor’s Approach to Support Open Systems and the Open Standard 15.4 Real-Time System Quality and Development Process Standard 15.4.1 Overview 15.4.2 The DO-178 (DO-178B and DO-178C) Standard 15.4.3 Mil-STD-2167/Mil-STD-498/IEEE 12207 Standards 15.4.4 CMMI 15.4.5 Waterfall Versus Iterative Development Process 15.5 Simulation, Test, and Verification and Validation (V&V) Approaches 15.5.1 Overview 15.5.2 Simulation for Concept Development and V&V 15.5.3 SITL Simulation and V&V 15.5.4 PITL and V&V 15.5.5 HITL V&V 15.6 Integrated System and Software Engineering and Model-Driven/Model-Based Development 15.7 Software Reuse and Software Product Lines (SPL) References List of Acronyms About the Author Index