Ultrasonography in Dentomaxillofacial Diagnostics

Description

This book offers a comprehensive review of the state of the art in Ultrasonography (USG) dentomaxillofacial imaging to help radiologists and dentists in their training and daily practice. The book examines the relationship between clinical features, diagnosis, and choice of minimally invasive technique for a range of dentomaxillofacial disorders and provides information on post-treatment therapy. Accurate interpretation of indications for treatment is the cornerstone of success in medicine, and as such, the book explains how the selection of imaging technique is closely linked to clinical and diagnostic aspects and how recognition of this relationship forms the foundation for optimal outcomes. In addition to examining the various modalities, the book highlights the role of the latest USG imaging techniques. Further, it discusses in detail the pathology, treatment, and prognosis of common and rare diseases, as well as congenital/developmental malformations in the dentomaxillofacial, an area that is often underestimated and largely ignored by dentists. Featuring updated high-resolution images created with state-of-the-art equipment, the book introduces readers to current imaging modalities. It also includes pathological descriptions of radiologic diagnoses to help clarify the pathophysiology of the disease, while the pearls and pitfalls of image interpretation provide a quick reference guide for practitioners. Written by leading international experts, this outstanding book is a valuable resource for both radiologists, dentists and students seeking a more in-depth appreciation of the subject and its contribution to the scientific radiology community. Foreword Preface Contents About the Editor 1: Introduction to Ultrasonography in Dentomaxillofacial Imaging 1.1 Introduction 1.2 What Does the Clinician Need in Terms of USG Imaging in Dentomaxillofacial Diagnostics? 1.3 Conclusion References 2: Anatomy for USG Application in Head and Neck 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 The Skeleton of the Head and Neck 2.1.1.1 Temporomandibular Joint 2.1.2 Muscles and Fasciae of the Head and Neck 2.1.3 Nerves of the Head and Neck 2.1.3.1 Cranial Nerves 2.1.3.2 Spinal Nerves 2.1.3.3 Autonomic Nerves 2.1.4 Blood Vessels of the Head and Neck 2.1.5 Lymphatic System of the Head and Neck 2.1.6 Oral Cavity 2.1.6.1 Oral Vestibule Lips Cheeks—Buccae Gums Blood Supply and Innervation of the Oral Vestibule 2.1.6.2 Oral Cavity Proper Palate Sublingual Region Tongue Glands of the Oral Cavity Parotid Gland Submandibular Gland Sublingual Gland 2.1.7 Nasal Cavity 2.1.7.1 External Nose 2.1.7.2 Nasal Cavity Proper Communication of the Nasal Cavity Mucosa of the Nasal Cavity Blood Supply and Innervation of the Nasal Cavity Paranasal Sinuses 2.1.8 Larynx and Other Neck Organs 2.1.9 Summary References 3: General Considerations for Ultrasound Applications in Head and Neck 3.1 Basics of Ultrasonography 3.2 Ultrasound Probes 3.3 Ultrasound Examination 3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ultrasound Scanning 3.5 Indications and Contraindications for Ultrasound References 4: Physical Principles of Doppler and Color Doppler Ultrasound 4.1 The Doppler Effect 4.2 Applications of the Doppler Shift in Diagnostic Imaging 4.3 Indications for Doppler Examinations in the Head and Neck Region 4.4 Limitations of Doppler Examinations 4.5 Ultrasound Contrast Agents References 5: Advanced Ultrasonography Imaging 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Panoramic Imaging 5.3 Tissue Harmonic Imaging 5.4 Real-Time Spatial Compound Imaging 5.5 Chromatic Imaging 5.6 Volumetric Ultrasound (Three-Dimensional (3D) and Four-Dimensional (4D) Ultrasound Imaging) 5.7 Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Imaging 5.8 Elastography 5.8.1 Strain Elastography 5.8.2 Shear Wave Elastography 5.8.2.1 Transient Elastography 5.8.2.2 Point Shear Wave Elastography 5.8.2.3 Multidimensional Shear Wave Elastography (2D-SWE and 3D-SWE) 5.9 Portable Ultrasound Systems References 6: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology: Cervical Lymph Nodes 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Basic Anatomy 6.1.2 Regional and Functional Classification of Lymph Nodes 6.2 Cervical Lymph Nodes Pathology 6.2.1 Pathological Swelling of Lymph Nodes Criteria 6.2.2 Ultrasonographic Criteria of Lymph Nodes Pathology References 7: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology Extracranial Nerves 7.1 General Sonographic Anatomy 7.2 Inflammatory Changes 7.3 Benign Tumors 7.3.1 Paragangliomas 7.3.2 Neuromas 7.4 Malignant Tumors References 8: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology Floor of the Mouth 8.1 General Anatomy and Ultrasonographic Features 8.2 Inflammatory Changes 8.2.1 Ranulas 8.3 Benign Tumors 8.3.1 Branchial Cysts 8.3.2 Thyroglossal Duct Cysts and Fistulas 8.3.3 Dermoid and Epidermoid Cysts 8.3.4 Other Benign Tumors 8.4 Malignant Tumors References 9: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology Salivary Glands 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 General Sonographic Anatomy 9.1.2 The Parotid Gland 9.1.3 The Submandibular Gland 9.2 Inflammatory Disease 9.2.1 Parotitis 9.2.2 Other Inflammatory Conditions 9.2.3 Inflammation from Drainage Failure Due to Calcification (Salivary Stone or Sialolithiasis) 9.3 Sjögren’s Syndrome 9.4 Neoplasms 9.4.1 Benign Tumors 9.4.1.1 Pleomorphic Adenomas 9.4.1.2 Warthin’s Tumor 9.4.2 Malignant Tumors 9.4.2.1 Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma 9.4.3 Other Masses 9.5 Vascular Masses 9.6 Salivary Gland Elastography References 10: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology: Temporomandibular Joint 10.1 General Consideration for Application of Ultrasound in TMJ Diagnostics 10.2 Indications and Contraindications for TMJ Ultrasound 10.3 Normal Anatomy of TMJ in Ultrasound 10.4 Ultrasonography-Guided Invasive Procedures 10.4.1 Fine-Needle Aspiration Biopsy 10.4.2 Ultrasonography-Guided Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy 10.4.3 Core Biopsy 10.4.4 Ultrasonography-Guided Core Biopsy 10.4.5 Intraarticular Sodium Hyaluronate Injection 10.4.6 Ultrasonography-Guided Sodium Hyaluronate Injection 10.4.7 Arthrocentesis 10.4.8 Ultrasonography-Guided Arthrocentesis 10.4.9 Intramasseteric Botulinum Toxin Injections for Bruxism 10.4.10 Ultrasonography-Guided Intramasseteric Botulinum Toxin Injections 10.5 The Use of Ultrasonography in Combination with Electromyography and Joint Vibration Analysis References 11: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology: Facial Soft Tissues Including Muscles 11.1 Anatomy 11.1.1 Parotid Gland 11.1.2 Muscles 11.1.3 Lips 11.1.4 Masseter Muscle 11.1.5 Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) 11.2 Diseases of Facial Soft Tissues and Muscles: Brief Review of Typical USG Aspect of the Most Frequently Encountered Pathologies 11.2.1 Inflammatory Changes 11.2.1.1 Furuncle 11.2.1.2 Abscess 11.2.1.3 Myositis 11.2.1.4 Mastoiditis 11.2.1.5 Preauricular Sinus 11.2.1.6 Sialadenitis 11.3 Benign Lesions: Cysts, Cyst like Lesions, and Tumors 11.3.1 Mucocele and Ranula 11.3.2 Dermoid and Epidermoid Cyst 11.3.3 Branchial Cleft Cyst 11.4 Vascular Lesions 11.4.1 Hematoma 11.4.2 Hemangioma 11.4.3 Vascular Malformations 11.5 Malignant Lesions 11.5.1 Metastasis 11.5.2 Lymphoma 11.5.3 Leukemia 11.6 Systemic Diseases 11.6.1 Sjogren’s Syndrome References 12: Sonographic Anatomy and Pathology: Paranasal Sinuses and Midface 12.1 Anatomy 12.2 Diseases of Paranasal Sinuses and Midface: A Brief Review of Typical USG Aspect of the Most Frequently Encountered Pathologies 12.2.1 Inflammatory Changes 12.2.1.1 Sinusitis 12.3 Benign Lesions 12.3.1 Paranasal Sinuses 12.3.2 Midface 12.3.2.1 Pilomatrixoma 12.3.2.2 Lipoma 12.4 Malignant Lesions 12.4.1 Image Interpretation Pearls 12.5 Trauma 12.5.1 USG Use in Nasal Bone Fractures 12.5.2 USG Use in Zygomatic Arc Fractures 12.5.3 USG Use in Orbital Floor Fractures 12.6 Foreign Bodies References 13: Ultra-High Frequency Ultrasound in Oral and Maxillofacial Imaging 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Principles of UHFUS Imaging 13.3 Components of Image Production 13.3.1 Performance of Intraoral UHFUS Scan 13.3.2 Setting Image Acquisition Parameters 13.3.3 Strengths and Limitations 13.3.3.1 Size and Cost 13.3.3.2 Fast Acquisition 13.3.3.3 Submillimeter Resolution 13.4 Normal Anatomy 13.4.1 Buccal Mucosa 13.4.2 Tongue 13.4.3 Lips 13.4.4 Gingiva 13.4.5 Palate 13.4.6 Mouth Floor 13.5 Oral Diseases: A Brief Review of Typical UHFUS Aspect of the Most Frequently Encountered Oral Lesions 13.5.1 Melanocytic Nevus 13.5.2 Migratory Glossitis 13.5.3 Hemangioma 13.5.4 Fibrous Hyperplasia 13.5.5 Lipoma 13.5.6 HPV-Papilloma 13.5.7 Pyogenic Granuloma 13.5.8 Salivary Retention/Extravasation Cysts 13.5.9 Salivary Ranula 13.5.10 Sjögren’s Syndrome 13.5.11 Oral Lichen Planus 13.5.12 Leukoplakia 13.5.13 Erythroplakia 13.5.14 Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma 13.6 Patient Protection 13.6.1 ALARA Principle References 14: Ultrasonographic Imaging in Periodontology 14.1 Periodontium 14.1.1 Gingiva 14.1.1.1 Anatomy of Gingiva Free Gingiva The Attached Gingiva The Interdental Gingiva The Gingival Sulcus The Gingival Fluid 14.1.2 Periodontal Ligament 14.1.2.1 Periodontal Ligament Cells 14.1.2.2 Extracellular Matrix of Periodontal Ligament (ECM) 14.1.3 Cementum 14.1.3.1 Cementoenamel Junction 14.1.3.2 Cementum Resorption 14.1.4 Alveolar Process 14.1.4.1 Anatomy of Alveolar Process Periosteum-Endosteum Remodeling Resorption 14.2 Periodontal Diagnosis and Prognosis 14.2.1 Classification of Periodontal and Peri-implant Diseases and Conditions 14.2.1.1 Classification of Periodontal and Peri-Implant Diseases and Conditions-2017 14.2.2 Definition and Etiology of Periodontal Diseases 14.2.2.1 Plaque-Induced Gingivitis 14.2.2.2 Periodontitis 14.2.2.3 Etiology of Periodontal Diseases Alveolar Bone Loss Furcations Abscesses of Periodontium 14.2.3 Bony Defects of Periodontium 14.2.3.1 The Pattern of Bone Loss 14.2.3.2 Bony Defects 14.3 Periodontal Radiology 14.3.1 Intraoral Radiographs (Periapical, Bitewing, Occlusal Radiographs) 14.3.2 Orthopantomograph (Panoramic Radiograph/OPG) 14.3.3 Cone-Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) 14.3.4 Ultrasonographic Imaging in Periodontology 14.3.4.1 Advantages of Ultrasonographic Imaging 14.3.4.2 Ultrasonographic Imaging in Periodontology References 15: USG Imaging in Orthodontics 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Evaluation of the Muscles of Mastication 15.2.1 Masseter 15.2.2 Temporalis 15.2.3 Other Muscles of the Stomatognathic System 15.3 Analysis of Tongue, Hyoid, and Swallowing 15.3.1 Tongue Volume 15.3.2 Tongue Posture 15.3.3 Tongue Movement 15.3.4 Hyoid Bone Displacement 15.4 Evaluation of the Airway 15.5 The Temporomandibular Joint Evaluation 15.6 Determination of Soft Tissue Thickness at Orthodontic Miniscrew Placement Sites 15.7 Determining Pubertal Growth and Bone Age 15.8 Evaluation of the Midpalatal Suture 15.9 Ultrasonographic Evaluation of Periodontal Changes During Orthodontic Tooth Movement 15.10 Effect of Low-Intensity Pulsed Ultrasound (LIPUS) on Tooth Movement and Root Resorption References 16: Ultrasonography Imaging in Endodontics 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Acute Apical Periodontitis 16.3 Chronic Apical Periodontitis 16.4 Acute Apical Abscess 16.5 Chronic Apical Abscess References 17: Applications of Ultrasonography in Maxillofacial/Intraoral Inflammatory and Cystic Lesions 17.1 Inflammatory Odontogenic Cysts 17.1.1 Radicular Cyst 17.1.2 Inflammatory Collateral Cysts 17.2 Developmental Odontogenic Cysts 17.2.1 Dentigerous Cyst 17.2.2 Odontogenic Keratocyst 17.2.3 Lateral Periodontal Cyst and Botryoid Odontogenic Cyst 17.2.4 Gingival Cyst 17.2.5 Glandular Odontogenic Cyst 17.2.6 Calcifying Odontogenic Cyst 17.2.7 Orthokeratinized Odontogenic Cyst 17.3 Developmental Non-odontogenic Cysts and Cyst-Like Lesions 17.3.1 Nasopalatine Duct Cyst 17.3.2 Nasolabial Cyst 17.3.3 Dermoid Cyst 17.3.4 Ranula 17.3.5 Thyroglossal Duct Cyst 17.3.6 Branchial Cleft Cyst 17.4 Pseudo-Cysts of the Jaws 17.4.1 Stafne Bone Cavity 17.4.2 Aneurysmal Bone Cyst 17.4.3 Simple Bone Cavity References 18: Applications of Ultrasonography in Maxillofacial/Intraoral Benign and Malignant Tumors 18.1 Benign Tumors of Maxillofacial Region 18.1.1 Epithelial Odontogenic Tumors 18.1.1.1 Ameloblastoma 18.1.1.2 Squamous Odontogenic Tumor 18.1.1.3 Calcifying Epithelial Odontogenic Tumor 18.1.1.4 Adenomatoid Odontogenic Tumor 18.1.2 Mixed Odontogenic Tumors 18.1.2.1 Ameloblastic Fibroma 18.1.2.2 Primordial Odontogenic Tumor 18.1.2.3 Odontoma 18.1.2.4 Dentinogenic Ghost Cell Tumor 18.1.3 Mesenchymal Odontogenic Tumors 18.1.3.1 Odontogenic Fibroma 18.1.3.2 Odontogenic Myxoma/Myxofibroma 18.1.3.3 Cementoblastoma 18.1.3.4 Cemento-Ossifying Fibroma 18.1.4 Benign Maxillofacial Bone and Cartilage Tumors 18.1.4.1 Chondroma 18.1.4.2 Osteoma 18.1.4.3 Melanocytic Neuroectodermal Tumor of Infancy 18.1.4.4 Chondroblastoma 18.1.4.5 Chondromyxoid Fibroma 18.1.4.6 Osteoid Osteoma 18.1.4.7 Osteoblastoma 18.1.4.8 Desmoplastic Fibroma 18.1.5 Fibro-Osseous and Osteochondromatous Lesions 18.1.5.1 Ossifying Fibroma 18.1.5.2 Familial Gigantiform Cementoma 18.1.5.3 Fibrous Dysplasia 18.1.5.4 Cemento-Osseous Dysplasia 18.1.5.5 Osteochondroma 18.1.6 Giant Cell Lesions and Simple Bone Cyst 18.1.6.1 Central Giant Cell Granuloma 18.1.6.2 Peripheral Giant Cell Granuloma 18.1.6.3 Aneurysmal Bone Cyst 18.1.6.4 Simple Bone Cyst 18.1.6.5 Cherubism 18.1.7 Hematolymphoid Tumors 18.1.7.1 Solitary Plasmacytoma of Bone (SPB) 18.1.8 Other Benign Tumors of Maxillofacial Region 18.1.8.1 Hemangioma 18.1.8.2 Lipoma 18.1.8.3 Lymphangioma 18.1.8.4 Neurofibroma and Schwannoma 18.1.8.5 Pleomorphic Adenoma 18.1.8.6 Lobular Capillary Hemangioma (Pyogenic Granuloma) 18.2 Malign Tumors of Maxillofacial Region 18.2.1 Odontogenic Carcinomas 18.2.1.1 Ameloblastic Carcinoma 18.2.1.2 Primary Intraosseous Carcinoma (NOS) 18.2.1.3 Sclerosing Odontogenic Carcinoma 18.2.1.4 Clear Cell Odontogenic Carcinoma 18.2.1.5 Ghost Cell Odontogenic Carcinoma 18.2.2 Odontogenic Carcinosarcomas 18.2.3 Odontogenic Sarcomas 18.2.4 Malignant Maxillofacial Bone and Cartilage Tumors 18.2.4.1 Osteosarcoma 18.2.4.2 Chondrosarcoma 18.2.4.3 Mesenchymal Chondrosarcoma 18.2.5 Non-odontogenic Malign Tumors of Maxillofacial Region 18.2.5.1 Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma 18.2.5.2 Adenoid Cystic Carcinoma 18.2.5.3 Mucoepidermoid Carcinoma 18.2.5.4 Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma 18.2.5.5 Malignant Melanoma 18.2.5.6 Multiple Myeloma 18.2.5.7 Metastatic Tumors 18.3 Pseudo-Tumors of Maxillofacial Regions 18.3.1 Masson’s Hemangioma (Intravascular Papillary Endothelial Hyperplasia) 18.3.2 Caliber Persistent Artery 18.3.3 Lymph Node Calcification References 19: The Thyroid Gland and Ultrasound Applications 19.1 Size of the Thyroid Gland 19.2 Thyroid Anomalies 19.2.1 Hemigenesis 19.2.2 Aberrant Thyroid 19.3 Masses in the Midline Level 6 19.3.1 Thyroglossal Duct Cyst 19.3.2 Lymph Nodes 19.3.3 Malignant Masses 19.3.4 Parathyroid Cyst 19.3.5 Parathyroid Adenoma 19.3.6 Parathyroid Carcinoma 19.4 Fourth Branchial Cleft Cyst/Cervical Thymic Cyst 19.5 Thyroiditis 19.6 Thyroid Nodules 19.7 US Characteristics of Thyroid Nodules: What to Look for and What to Include in Our US Thyroid Report References Recommended Reading List 20: Intervention with US 20.1 US-Guided Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC) 20.2 Salivary Gland Intervention References Reading List 21: USG Imaging in Physiotherapy of Dentomaxillofacial Region 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Role of Physiotherapy (Applications) in Dentomaxillofacial Region Problems 21.3 USG Imaging Usage in Musculoskeletal System Structures 21.3.1 Technical Considerations and Limitations of Ultrasound Elastography 21.3.1.1 Technical Considerations and Limitations of Sonoelastography in Muscle–Tendon Evaluation 21.3.1.2 Technical Considerations and Limitations of Shear-Wave Elastography 21.4 USG Imaging of Masseter Muscle after Physiotherapy Applications References