The Physics of Semiconductors: An Introduction Including Nanophysics and Applications

Description

The 4th edition of this highly successful textbook features copious material for a complete upper-level undergraduate or graduate course, guiding readers to the point where they can choose a specialized topic and begin supervised research. The textbook provides an integrated approach beginning from the essential principles of solid-state and semiconductor physics to their use in various classic and modern semiconductor devices for applications in electronics and photonics. The text highlights many practical aspects of semiconductors: alloys, strain, heterostructures, nanostructures, amorphous semiconductors, and noise, which are essential aspects of modern semiconductor research but often omitted in other textbooks. This textbook also covers advanced topics, such as Bragg mirrors, resonators, polarized and magnetic semiconductors, nanowires, quantum dots, multi-junction solar cells, thin film transistors, and transparent conductive oxides. The 4th edition includes many updates and chapters on 2D materials and aspects of topology. The text derives explicit formulas for many results to facilitate a better understanding of the topics. Having evolved from a highly regarded two-semester course on the topic, The Physics of Semiconductors requires little or no prior knowledge of solid-state physics. More than 2100 references guide the reader to historic and current literature including original papers, review articles and topical books, providing a go-to point of reference for experienced researchers as well. Preface Contents Abbreviations Symbols Physical Constants 1 Introduction 1.1 Timetable and Key Achievements 1.2 Nobel Prize Winners 1.3 General Information Part I Fundamentals 2 Bonds 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Covalent Bonds 2.2.1 Electron-Pair Bond 2.2.2 sp3 Bonds 2.2.3 sp2 Bonds 2.3 Ionic Bonds 2.4 Mixed Bonds 2.5 Metallic Bonding 2.6 Van-der-Waals Bonds 2.7 Hamilton Operator of the Solid 3 Crystals 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Crystal Structure 3.3 Lattice 3.3.1 2D Bravais Lattices 3.3.2 3D Bravais Lattices 3.3.3 Unit Cell 3.3.4 Point Group 3.3.5 Space Group 3.3.6 Polycrystalline Semiconductors 3.3.7 Amorphous Semiconductors 3.4 Important Crystal Structures 3.4.1 Rocksalt Structure 3.4.2 CsCl Structure 3.4.3 Diamond Structure 3.4.4 Zincblende Structure 3.4.5 Wurtzite Structure 3.4.6 Chalcopyrite Structure 3.4.7 Spinel Structure 3.4.8 Fluorite Structure 3.4.9 Delafossite Structure 3.4.10 Perovskite Structure 3.4.11 NiAs Structure 3.4.12 Further Structures 3.5 Polytypism and Polymorphism 3.6 Reciprocal Lattice 3.6.1 Reciprocal Lattice Vectors 3.6.2 Miller Indices 3.6.3 Brillouin Zone 3.7 Alloys 3.7.1 Random Alloys 3.7.2 Phase Diagram 3.7.3 Virtual Crystal Approximation 3.7.4 Lattice Parameter 3.7.5 Ordering 4 Structural Defects 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Point Defects 4.2.1 Point Defect Types 4.2.2 Thermodynamics 4.2.3 Diffusion 4.2.4 Dopant Distribution 4.2.5 Large Concentration Effects 4.3 Dislocations 4.3.1 Dislocation Types 4.3.2 Visualization of Dislocations by Etching 4.3.3 Impurity Hardening 4.4 Extended Defects 4.4.1 Micro-cracks 4.4.2 Stacking Faults 4.4.3 Grain Boundaries 4.4.4 Antiphase and Inversion Domains 4.5 Disorder 5 Mechanical Properties 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Lattice Vibrations 5.2.1 Monoatomic Linear Chain 5.2.2 Diatomic Linear Chain 5.2.3 Mode Patterns and Topological States 5.2.4 Lattice Vibrations of a Three-Dimensional Crystal 5.2.5 Density of States 5.2.6 Phonons 5.2.7 Localized Vibrational Modes 5.2.8 Phonons in Alloys 5.2.9 Disorder 5.2.10 Topological Edge States of a Linear Chain 5.3 Elasticity 5.3.1 Thermal Expansion 5.3.2 Stress–Strain Relation 5.3.3 Biaxial Stress 5.3.4 Three-Dimensional Stress 5.3.5 Substrate Bending 5.3.6 Scrolling 5.4 Plasticity 5.4.1 Critical Thickness 5.4.2 Cleaving 5.4.3 Wafer Breakage 6 Band Structure 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Electrons in a Periodic Potential 6.2.1 Bloch's Theorem 6.2.2 Free-Electron Dispersion 6.2.3 Non-Vanishing Potential 6.2.4 Kramer's Degeneracy 6.2.5 Symmetry Considerations 6.2.6 Topological Considerations 6.3 Band Structures of Selected Semiconductors 6.3.1 Silicon 6.3.2 Germanium 6.3.3 GaAs 6.3.4 GaP 6.3.5 GaN 6.3.6 Lead Salts 6.3.7 MgO, ZnO, CdO 6.3.8 Chalcopyrites 6.3.9 Spinels 6.3.10 Delafossites 6.3.11 Perovskites 6.4 Systematics of Semiconductor Band Gaps 6.5 Alloy Semiconductors 6.6 Amorphous Semiconductors 6.7 Temperature Dependence of the Band Gap 6.8 Isotope Dependence of the Band Gap 6.9 Electron Dispersion 6.9.1 Equation of Electron Motion 6.9.2 Effective Mass of Electrons 6.9.3 Nonparabolicity of Electron Mass 6.10 Holes 6.10.1 Hole Concept 6.10.2 Hole Dispersion Relation 6.10.3 Valence-Band Fine Structure 6.11 Band Inversion 6.12 Strain Effects on the Band Structure 6.12.1 Strain Effect on Band Edges 6.12.2 Strain Effect on Effective Masses 6.12.3 Interaction With a Localized Level 6.13 Density of States 6.13.1 General Band Structure 6.13.2 Amorphous Semiconductors 6.13.3 Free-Electron Gas 7 Electronic Defect States 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Carrier Concentration 7.3 Intrinsic Conduction 7.4 Doping 7.4.1 Concept 7.4.2 Doping Principles 7.5 Shallow Defects 7.5.1 Donors 7.5.2 Acceptors 7.5.3 Compensation 7.5.4 Multiple Impurities 7.5.5 Amphoteric Impurities 7.5.6 Autodoping 7.5.7 High Doping 7.6 Quasi-fermi Levels 7.7 Deep Levels 7.7.1 Charge States 7.7.2 Double Donors 7.7.3 Double Acceptors 7.7.4 Jahn–Teller Effect 7.7.5 Negative-U Center 7.7.6 DX Center 7.7.7 EL2 Defect 7.7.8 Semi-insulating Semiconductors 7.7.9 Isoelectronic Impurities 7.7.10 Surface States 7.8 The Charge Neutrality Level 7.9 Hydrogen in Semiconductors 8 Transport 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Conductivity 8.3 Low-Field Transport 8.3.1 Mobility 8.3.2 Microscopic Scattering Processes 8.3.3 Ionized Impurity Scattering 8.3.4 Deformation Potential Scattering 8.3.5 Piezoelectric Potential Scattering 8.3.6 Polar Optical Scattering 8.3.7 Dislocation Scattering 8.3.8 Grain Boundary Scattering 8.3.9 Alloy Scattering 8.3.10 Dipole Scattering 8.3.11 Temperature Dependence 8.3.12 Doping Dependence 8.3.13 Superconductivity 8.3.14 Piezoresistivity 8.4 High-Field Transport 8.4.1 Drift-Saturation Velocity 8.4.2 Negative Differential Resistivity 8.4.3 Velocity Overshoot 8.4.4 Impact Ionization 8.5 High-Frequency Transport 8.6 Impurity Band Transport 8.7 Polarons 8.7.1 Large Polarons 8.7.2 Small Polarons 8.8 Hopping Transport 8.9 Transport in Amorphous Semiconductors 8.10 Ionic Transport 8.11 Diffusion 8.12 Continuity Equation 8.13 Heat Conduction 8.14 Coupled Heat and Charge Transport 8.14.1 Thermopower and Seebeck Effect 8.14.2 Peltier Effect 9 Optical Properties 9.1 Spectral Regions and Overview 9.2 Complex Dielectric Function 9.3 Reflection and Diffraction 9.4 Absorption 9.5 Dielectric Function due to Optical Phonons 9.6 Electron–Photon Interaction 9.7 Band–Band Transitions 9.7.1 Joint Density of States 9.7.2 Direct Transitions 9.7.3 Indirect Transitions 9.7.4 Urbach Tail 9.7.5 Amorphous Semiconductors 9.7.6 Excitons 9.7.7 Phonon Broadening 9.7.8 Exciton Polariton 9.7.9 Bound-Exciton Absorption 9.7.10 Biexcitons 9.7.11 Trions 9.7.12 Band Gap Renormalization 9.7.13 Electron–Hole Droplets 9.7.14 Two-Photon Absorption 9.8 Impurity Absorption 9.8.1 Shallow Levels 9.8.2 Deep Levels 9.9 Absorption in the Presence of Free Charge Carriers 9.9.1 Absorption Coefficient, Plasma Frequency 9.9.2 Burstein–Moss Shift 9.9.3 Inter-Valenceband Transitions 9.9.4 Inter-Valley Transitions 9.9.5 Intra-Band Transitions 9.10 Lattice Absorption 9.10.1 Dielectric Constant 9.10.2 Reststrahlenbande 9.10.3 Polaritons 9.10.4 Phonon–Plasmon Coupling 10 Recombination 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Band–Band Recombination 10.2.1 Spontaneous Emission 10.2.2 Absorption 10.2.3 Stimulated Emission 10.2.4 Net Recombination Rate 10.2.5 Recombination Dynamics 10.2.6 Lasing 10.3 Exciton Recombination 10.3.1 Free Excitons 10.3.2 Bound Excitons 10.3.3 Alloy Broadening 10.4 Phonon Replica 10.5 Self-Absorption 10.6 Donor–Acceptor Pair Transitions 10.7 Inner-Impurity Recombination 10.8 Auger Recombination 10.9 Band–Impurity Recombination 10.9.1 Shockley–Read–Hall Kinetics 10.9.2 Multilevel Traps 10.10 ABC Model 10.11 Field Effect 10.11.1 Thermally Activated Emission 10.11.2 Direct Tunneling 10.11.3 Assisted Tunneling 10.12 Recombination at Extended Defects 10.12.1 Surfaces 10.12.2 Grain Boundaries 10.12.3 Dislocations 10.13 Excess-Carrier Profiles 10.13.1 Generation at Surface 10.13.2 Generation in the Bulk Part II Selected Topics 11 Surfaces 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Surface Crystallography 11.3 Surface Energy 11.4 Surface Reconstruction 11.5 Surface Morphology 11.6 Surface Physical Properties 11.6.1 Surface Phonons 11.6.2 Surface Plasmons 11.6.3 Electronic Surface States 12 Heterostructures 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Heteroepitaxy 12.2.1 Growth Methods 12.2.2 Substrates 12.2.3 Growth Modes 12.2.4 Heterosubstrates 12.2.5 Patterned Substrates 12.2.6 Pseudomorphic Structures 12.2.7 Plastic Relaxation 12.2.8 Surfactants 12.3 Energy Levels in Heterostructures 12.3.1 Band Lineup in Heterostructures 12.3.2 Quantum Wells 12.3.3 Superlattices 12.3.4 Heterointerface Between Doped Materials 12.3.5 Heterointerface Between Semiconductors with Band Structures of Different Topology 12.4 Recombination in Quantum Wells 12.4.1 Thickness Dependence 12.4.2 Broadening Effects 12.4.3 Quantum Confined Stark Effect 12.5 Isotope Superlattices 12.6 Wafer Bonding 13 Two-Dimensional Semiconductors 13.1 Graphene and Related Materials 13.1.1 Structural Properties 13.1.2 Band Structures 13.1.3 Electrical Properties 13.1.4 Optical Properties 13.2 Two-Dimensional Compound Semiconductors 13.2.1 Structural Properties 13.2.2 Band Structures 13.2.3 Optical Properties and Valley Polarization 13.2.4 Excitons 13.3 Van-der-Waals Heterostructures 14 Nanostructures 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Quantum Wires 14.2.1 V-Groove Quantum Wires 14.2.2 Cleaved-Edge Overgrowth Quantum Wires 14.2.3 Nanowhiskers 14.2.4 Nanobelts 14.2.5 Quantization in Two-Dimensional Potential Wells 14.3 Carbon Nanotubes 14.3.1 Structure 14.3.2 Band Structure 14.3.3 Optical Properties 14.3.4 Other Anorganic Nanotubes 14.4 Quantum Dots 14.4.1 Quantization in Three-Dimensional Potential Wells 14.4.2 Electrical and Transport Properties 14.4.3 Self-Assembled Preparation 14.4.4 Optical Properties 15 External Fields 15.1 Electric Fields 15.1.1 Bulk Material 15.1.2 Quantum Wells 15.2 Magnetic Fields 15.2.1 Classical Hall Effect 15.2.2 Free-Carrier Absorption 15.2.3 Energy Levels in Bulk Crystals 15.2.4 Magnetic Field Effect on Impurities 15.2.5 Magnetic Field Effect on Excitons 15.2.6 Energy Levels in a 2DEG 15.2.7 Shubnikov-De Haas Oscillations 15.2.8 Quantum Hall Effect 16 Polarized Semiconductors 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Spontaneous Polarization 16.3 Ferroelectricity 16.3.1 Materials 16.3.2 Soft Phonon Mode 16.3.3 Phase Transition 16.3.4 Domains 16.3.5 Optical Properties 16.4 Piezoelectricity 16.4.1 Piezoelectric Effect 16.4.2 Zincblende Crystals 16.4.3 Wurtzite Crystals 16.4.4 Piezoelectric Effects in Nanostructures 17 Magnetic Semiconductors 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Magnetic Semiconductors 17.3 Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors 17.4 Spintronics 17.4.1 Spin Transistor 17.4.2 Spin LED 18 Organic Semiconductors 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Materials 18.2.1 Small Organic Molecules, Polymers 18.2.2 Organic Semiconductor Crystals 18.3 Electronic Structure 18.4 Doping 18.5 Transport Properties 18.6 Optical Properties 19 Dielectric Structures 19.1 Photonic Band Gap Materials 19.1.1 Introduction 19.1.2 General 1D Scattering Theory 19.1.3 Transmission of an N-Period Potential 19.1.4 The Quarter-Wave Stack 19.1.5 Formation of a 3D Band Structure 19.1.6 Disorder 19.1.7 Defect Modes 19.1.8 Topological Photonic Band Structures 19.1.9 Coupling to an Electronic Resonance 19.1.10 Hyperbolic Optical Metamaterials 19.2 Microscopic Resonators 19.2.1 Microdiscs 19.2.2 Purcell Effect 19.2.3 Deformed Resonators 19.2.4 Hexagonal Cavities 20 Transparent Conductive Oxide Semiconductors 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Materials 20.3 Properties Part III Applications 21 Diodes 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Metal-Semiconductor Contacts 21.2.1 Band Diagram in Equilibrium 21.2.2 Space-Charge Region 21.2.3 Schottky Effect 21.2.4 Capacitance 21.2.5 Current-Voltage Characteristic 21.2.6 Ohmic Contacts 21.2.7 Metal Contacts to Organic Semiconductors 21.3 Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Diodes 21.3.1 Band Diagram for Ideal MIS Diode 21.3.2 Space-Charge Region 21.3.3 Capacitance 21.3.4 Nonideal MIS Diode 21.4 Bipolar Diodes 21.4.1 Band Diagram 21.4.2 Space-Charge Region 21.4.3 Capacitance 21.4.4 Current-Voltage Characteristics 21.4.5 Breakdown 21.4.6 Heterostructure Diodes 21.4.7 Organic Semiconductor Diodes 21.5 Applications and Special Diode Devices 21.5.1 Rectification 21.5.2 Frequency Mixing 21.5.3 Voltage Regulator 21.5.4 Zener Diodes 21.5.5 Varactors 21.5.6 Fast-Recovery Diodes 21.5.7 Step-Recovery Diodes 21.5.8 Pin-Diodes 21.5.9 Tunneling Diodes 21.5.10 Backward Diodes 21.5.11 Gunn Diodes 22 Light-to-Electricity Conversion 22.1 Photocatalysis 22.2 Photoconductors 22.2.1 Introduction 22.2.2 Photoconductivity Detectors 22.2.3 Electrophotography 22.2.4 QWIPs 22.2.5 Blocked Impurity-Band Detectors 22.3 Photodiodes 22.3.1 Introduction 22.3.2 Pn Photodiodes 22.3.3 Pin Photodiodes 22.3.4 Position-Sensing Detector 22.3.5 MSM Photodiodes 22.3.6 Avalanche Photodiodes 22.3.7 Traveling-Wave Photodetectors 22.3.8 Charge Coupled Devices 22.3.9 Photodiode Arrays 22.4 Solar Cells 22.4.1 Solar Radiation 22.4.2 Ideal Solar Cells 22.4.3 Real Solar Cells 22.4.4 Design Refinements 22.4.5 Modules 22.4.6 Solar-Cell Types 22.4.7 Economic Issues 23 Electricity-to-Light Conversion 23.1 Radiometric and Photometric Quantities 23.1.1 Radiometric Quantities 23.1.2 Photometric Quantities 23.2 Scintillators 23.2.1 CIE Chromaticity Diagram 23.2.2 Display Applications 23.2.3 Radiation Detection 23.2.4 Luminescence Mechanisms 23.3 Light-Emitting Diodes 23.3.1 Introduction 23.3.2 Spectral Ranges 23.3.3 Efficiencies 23.3.4 Device Design 23.3.5 White LEDs 23.3.6 Quantum Dot LEDs 23.3.7 Organic LEDs 23.4 Lasers 23.4.1 Introduction 23.4.2 Applications 23.4.3 Gain 23.4.4 Optical Mode 23.4.5 Loss Mechanisms 23.4.6 Threshold 23.4.7 Spontaneous Emission Factor 23.4.8 Output Power 23.4.9 Temperature Dependence 23.4.10 Mode Spectrum 23.4.11 Longitudinal Single-Mode Lasers 23.4.12 Tunability 23.4.13 Dynamics and Modulation 23.4.14 Surface-Emitting Lasers 23.4.15 Optically Pumped Semiconductor Lasers 23.4.16 Quantum Cascade Lasers 23.4.17 Hot-Hole Lasers 23.5 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers 24 Transistors 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Bipolar Transistors 24.2.1 Carrier Density and Currents 24.2.2 Current Amplification 24.2.3 Ebers-Moll Model 24.2.4 Current–Voltage Characteristics 24.2.5 Basic Circuits 24.2.6 High-Frequency Properties 24.2.7 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 24.2.8 Light-Emitting Transistors 24.3 Field-Effect Transistors 24.4 JFET and MESFET 24.4.1 General Principle 24.4.2 Static Characteristics 24.4.3 Normally On and Normally Off FETs 24.4.4 Field-Dependent Mobility 24.4.5 High-Frequency Properties 24.5 MOSFETs 24.5.1 Operation Principle 24.5.2 Current–Voltage Characteristics 24.5.3 MOSFET Types 24.5.4 Complementary MOS 24.5.5 Large-Scale Integration 24.5.6 Tunneling FETs 24.5.7 Nonvolatile Memories 24.5.8 Heterojunction FETs 24.6 Thin-Film Transistors 24.6.1 Annealing of Amorphous Silicon 24.6.2 TFT Devices 24.6.3 Transistors with 2D Materials 24.6.4 OFETs Appendix A Tensors A.1 Introduction A.2 Rotation of Coordinate System A.3 Rank-n Tensors Appendix B Point and Space Groups Appendix C Kramers–Kronig Relations Appendix D Oscillator Strength Appendix E Quantum Statistics E.1 Introduction E.2 Partition Sum E.3 Photon Statistics E.4 Fermi–Dirac Statistics E.5 Bose–Einstein Distribution Appendix F Kronig-Penney Model Appendix G Tight-Binding Model G.1 Concept G.2 One-Dimensional Model G.3 Two-Dimensional Lattices G.3.1 Square Lattice G.3.2 Honeycomb Lattice G.4 Edge States and Topological Aspects G.4.1 One-Dimensional Model G.4.2 Two-Dimensional Models Appendix H k cdotp Perturbation Theory Appendix I Effective-Mass Theory Appendix J Boltzmann Transport Theory J.1 Boltzmann Transport Equation J.2 Conductivity J.3 Hall Effect J.4 Thermopower Appendix K Noise K.1 Fluctuating signals K.2 Correlations K.3 Noise spectrum K.3.1 Thermal Noise K.3.2 1/f Noise K.3.3 Shot Noise K.3.4 Generation-Recombination Noise Appendix References Index