Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science

Description

This comprehensive, twelve volume reference work reflects the interdisciplinary influences on evolutionary psychology and serves as a major resource for its history, scientific contributors and theories. It draws on biology, cognitive science, anthropology, psychology, economics, computer science and paleoarchaeology to provide a multifaceted picture of behavioral adaptation in humans and how it adds to our academic and clinical understanding. Edited by a noted figure in evolutionary psychology, with many seminal and renowned contributors, this encyclopedia offers the full breadth of an area that is the forefront of behavioral thinking and investigation. About the Editiors Contributors A 2D:4D A Man of Stature Abhorrence Ability and Willingness of Victim to Retaliate Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Benefit of Retaliation Benefit of Direct Deterrence Benefit of Penalization for Wrongdoing Benefit of Deterring Third-Party Aggressors Conclusion Cross-References References Ability to Recognize Individuals Synonyms Definition Introduction Auditory Recognition Visual Face Recognition in Nonhuman Primates Neurological Evidence Behavioral Evidence Developmental Evidence Face Recognition in Non-Primates Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Abnormal Fears Aborticide Abortion Synonyms Definition Introduction Incidence Types of Abortion Threatened Abortion Clinical Features Investigations Treatment Inevitable Abortion Clinical Features Signs Investigation Management Complete Abortion Clinical Features Investigations Management Incomplete Abortion Management Missed Abortion Investigation Management Recurrent Abortion Etiology Investigations Management Induced Abortion Criminal Abortion Septic Abortion Diagnosis Investigations Management Challenges and Issues Regarding Abortion Global Efforts and Legislature About Abortion Conclusion Cross-References References Absence of Events to Distinguish True Friends Benefits of Friendships The Absence of Events in the Modern Environment Conclusion References Absence Prior to Puberty Synonyms Definition Introduction Life History Theory Psychosocial Acceleration Theory Criticisms and Debates in Literatures Cross-Sectional Data and Causality Populations Genetic Confounds Conclusion Cross-References References Absolutism Absorption Abstinence Synonyms Definition Introduction Abstinence in Sex Education Conclusion Cross-References References Abstract Concept Formation Synonyms Definition Introduction Experimental Methods to Study Abstraction Conclusion Cross-References References Abstraction Abuse Abusers: Husbands, Boyfriends, and Former Sexual Partners Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Aggression: Why Are Men More Physically Aggressive than Women? How Did Women Become More Vulnerable to Partner Aggression? Why Do Men Hurt Women They ``Love´´? Is There a Typical Abuser Profile? Conclusion Cross-References References Access to Alloparents Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-Cultural Examples of Alloparenting Categories of Alloparental Investment Alloparents and Pair-Bond Stability Conclusion Cross-References References Access to Resources Synonyms Definition Introduction Kinship and Access to Resources Status and Access to Resources Sex Differences in Access to Resources Conclusion Cross-References References Accuracy of Self-Knowledge Accuracy of Self-Perception Accuracy of Self-View Synonyms Definition Introduction Perspectives on Accuracy of Self-View in the Psychological Literature Evolutionary Account of Accuracy of Self-View Measurement of Accuracy of Self-View Conclusion Cross-References References Acheulean Synonyms Definition Introduction The Acheulean Class of Tools and Their Importance Conclusion Cross-References References Acoustic Competition Acquaintance Rape Acquisition Act Nomination Method Synonyms Definition Introduction Identifying the Behavioral Output of Psychological Adaptations Conclusion Cross-References References Action Action Regret Active Bait Fishing Activist Acts Act-Utilitarianism Ad Exposure Ad Hominem Synonyms Definition Introduction Are Ad Hominem Attacks Ever Reasonable? Ad Hominem Attacks and Decision-Making Conclusion References Ádm Miklósi Synonyms Definition Introduction Projects and Research The Family Dog Project Book Publication Summary of Research Conclusion Cross-References References Adaptation Synonyms Definition Introduction Factors Important in Considering Adaptations Examples of Adaptations Conclusion Cross-References References Adaptation and Natural Selection Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Adaptation Failure Adaptation for Single Births Synonyms Definition Introduction Uterine Morphology Conclusion Cross-References References Adaptationism Adaptationist Framework Adaptationist Perspective Adaptationist Program, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Adaptationist Framework The Adaptationist Approach Critiques of the Adaptationist Program Cross-References References Adaptations Adaptations for Navigating Social Hierarchies Synonyms Definition Introduction Hierarchical Social Categorization Motive Systems for Navigating Social Hierarchies Communicating Systems Signaling Social Rank Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Adaptations for Reciprocal Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction Conditional Reasoning Trust and Trustworthiness Fairness and Fairness-Based Morality One-Shot Generosity, a Bedrock Feature of Human Nature Revenge and Forgiveness Gratitude Anger Guilt Empathy and Sympathy Cross-References References Adaptations to Avoid Ostracism Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Pain Conformity, Obedience, and Norm Adherence Reciprocity and Free-Loading Self-Control Conclusion Cross-References References Adaptations to Human Sperm Competition Adaptations to Sperm Competition Adaptations: Product of Evolution Definition Introduction The Process of Adaptation Adaptive, Maladaptive, and Adaptation Conclusion Cross-References References Adapted Mind, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Adaption Adaptive Benefits of Matriliny and ``Walking Marriages´´ in Mosuo Culture Synonyms Definition Introduction General Characteristics of the Mosuo Reproductive Practices of the Mosuo Challenges to Relationship Orthodoxy Mosuo Practices as Solutions to Adaptive Problems Solution to Women´s Problems of Assessing the Commitment and Quality of Mates Solution to Men´s Problems of Demonstrating Mate Quality and Intrasexual Competition Solution to Men´s Problem of Increasing Sexual Access to Multiple Mates Solution to the Problem of Paternity Uncertainty Solution to the Problem of Familial Instability Solution to the Problem of Conflict over Whom to Invest in Empirical Evidence for the Adaptive Benefits of Mosuo Practices Future Research Conclusion Cross-References References Adaptive Hypotheses of Infanticide Adaptive Lag Adaptive Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction Conformity and Imitation Prestige Bias Related Findings and Conclusions Cross-References References Adaptive Memory (Adaptive) Phenotypic Plasticity Adaptive Plasticity Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Adaptive Plasticity? A Brief Overview of the Baldwin Effect Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Adaptive Play Behavior Adaptive Polymorphisms Adaptive Problem of Detecting Kinship Synonyms Definition Introduction Avoiding Interbreeding Development of Altruism Kin Detection Systems Conclusion Cross-References References Adaptive Problems Adaptive Solutions to Socialization Adaptive Specialisations Adaptive Variation Adiposity Adjunct Mother Adjustment Adjustment of Copulatory/Ejaculatory Investment Adolescence Adolescent Issues Synonyms Definition Introduction Friendships The Peer Group Conclusion Cross-References References Adolescent Parenthood Synonyms Definition Introduction Paternity Uncertainty Hypothesis Mating Opportunity Cost Hypothesis Parent-Offspring Conflict Theory Decreased Life Expectancy Conclusion Cross-References References Adolescents Adoption Adoption Preferences Synonyms Definition Introduction Resemblance/Kinship Age Health Cuteness Conclusion Cross-References References Adrenaline Adrenogenital Syndrome Adult Attachment Adult Sex Ratio Adultery Advanced Age Advanced Tool Use Synonyms Definition Introduction The Importance of Advanced Tool Use and Its Practicality Conclusion Cross-References References Advanced Tools of Neanderthals Synonyms Definition Introduction Toolmaking Examples Controversy Conclusion References Advantageous Side Effects Advantages of Having Close Blood and Affinal Relationships Adverse Effects of Alcohol in Utero Advertisements Advertising Synonyms Definition Introduction Advertising: More Than Meets the Eye Advertisements Reflect Evolved Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Advertising Effects Aesthetic Display Affair Affective Bond Affiliation Affiliation and Sexual Behavior Affiliation and Sexuality Affiliative Bonds After Life Age Age Categories Age Categorization Age Differences in Marriage Partners Definition Introduction Consequences of Age Disparity Between Spouses Theoretical Explanations of Age Differences Between Spouses Conclusion Cross-References References Age Disparity Age Groups Age of Child Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Age of Menarche Age of Mother at Birth of Her Child Age of Parent Synonyms Definitions Introduction Evolution and Parental Age Conclusion Cross-References References Age of Weaning in Human Evolutionary History Age Perception Agency-Detection Synonyms Definition Introduction Agency Detection Is Adaptive Agency Detection as an Early Step of Social Inferences Universal vs. Culture-Specific Aspects of Social Inferences Agency Detection Is a Crucial Factor for the Emergence of Religious Intuitions Conclusion Cross-References References Age-Related Reproductive Potential Aggregation Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Has Aggression Evolved? How Has Human Aggression Evolved? How Does Human Aggression Develop Over the Life Course? How Do the Psychological Mechanisms That Regulate Aggression Work? Conclusion Cross-References References Aggression for Sexual Access Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Aggression in Other Species Frequency of Sexual Aggression in Humans Sex Differences Overview of EP Models Data Pertaining to the Generalist Versus Specialist Models Sexual Arousal to Force Proposed Evolved Function of Sexual Arousal to Force Specialization and Coercive Potential Conclusion Cross-References References Aggressive Behavior Aggressive Behaviors Aggressive Fantasies Synonyms Definition Introduction The Catharsis Hypothesis Evidence Contrary to the Catharsis Hypothesis Aggressive Fantasy as Social Cognition Other Factors Affecting Aggressive Fantasy Conclusion Cross-References References Aggressive Imitation Aggressiveness Aging Agonistic Interactions Agonistic Support Agreeableness Agropastoral Cultures of Violence Agropastoral Honor Cultures Aid Alarm Call Alarm Call Confuses Predator Alarm Call Creates Confusion Synonyms Definitions Introduction Alarm Calling Confusion Conclusions Cross-References References Alarm Callers Are Females with Greatest Genetic Representation Synonyms Definition Introduction Kinship as a Determinant of Alarm Calling Conclusion Cross-References References Alarm Calling Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Function Selfish Alarm Calling Altruistic Alarm Calling Information Content Call Production Call Comprehension Call Sequences: Temporal and Morphological Structure Compositionality Ontogeny and Learning Comprehension Production Usage Conclusion Cross-References References Alarm Calling and Kinship Synonyms Definition Introduction The Cognition of Animal Alarm Calls The Evolution of Animal Alarm Calling Individual Selection: Alarm Calling to Enhance Signaler Survival Perception Advertisement Prey ``Manipulation´´ Alarm Calling to Favor Kin Alarm Call Evolution in Relation to Sex Conclusion Cross-References References Alarm Calling Predicted by Inclusive Fitness Synonyms Definition Introduction Alarm Calling and Kinship Conclusion Cross-References References Alarm Calling upon Predator Detection Synonyms Definition Introduction Alarm Caller Targeted by Predator Alarm Callers and Genetic Representation Conclusions Cross-References References Alarm Calls Synonyms Definition Introduction Semantic Alarm Calling Deceptive Alarm Calling Conclusion Cross-References References Alarm Calls Warn Relatives Alcohol Synonyms Definition Introduction Chemistry of Alcohol Alcohol: Developmental Significance History of Alcohol Use in the World Alcohol: Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics Alcohol: Effects on Physical Health Alcohol: Effects on Mental Health Conclusion Cross-References References Alcohol and Balance Synonyms Definition Introduction Effects of Alcohol on Balance How Alcohol Affects Balance Conclusion Cross-References References Alcohol and Rape on College Campuses Definition Introduction Alcohol Consumption on College Campuses Rape on College Campuses Evolution, Alcohol, and Rape Conclusion Cross-References References Alcohol Violence Alcohol-Related Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction Attributes of Violence Associated with Alcohol Use Prevention of Alcohol-Related Violence Conclusion References Alert Call Alert Calling Alerting Calls Alfred Russel Wallace (1858) Synonyms Definition Introduction The Birth of a Naturalist Amazon Basin The Malay Archipelago The Ternate Essay Co-Discovery of Natural Selection Back to England Mental Processes: Evolutionary Continuity or a Superior Force? Darwin´s Response Conclusion Cross-References References Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Darwin Definition Introduction Affinity and mutability: the origins of an idea Conclusion Cross-References References Alienation All Psychology Is Evolutionary Psychology Allergic Reactions Allergies Synonyms Definition Introduction The Toxin Hypothesis Allergies and Cancer Allergies and Protection Against Venom Conclusion Cross-References References Alliance Alliance Formation Alliance Formation Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction The Alliance Theory The Role of Dominance Hierarchies Conclusion Cross-References References Alliances Allocare Allocation of Attention Allogrooming Allomother Allomothering Alloparenting Synonyms Definition Introduction Defining Alloparenting Is Alloparenting the Same as Cooperative Breeding? How is Alloparenting Conceptualized? Types of Alloparental Investments: Provisioning Versus Caregiving Pathways of Alloparental Investments: Direct Versus Indirect Alloparenting Systems: Substitutive Versus Additive The Evolution of Alloparenting in Humans Indirect Fitness Benefits Direct Fitness Benefits Learning-to-Mother/Parenting Experience Costly Signaling and Mating Effort Reciprocity Key Alloparents Across Cultures Grandparents Siblings and Other Children Peers of Parents and Other Households Institutional Alloparents Conclusion Cross-References References Alloparenting and Female Same-Sex Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Alloparenting Sexual Fluidity Sexual Fluidity as a Conditional Female Mating Strategy But Why the Sex? Conclusions Cross-References References Alloparenting and Grandparenting Definition Introduction Alloparenting Grandparenting Conclusion Cross-References References Alloparents Allopreening Alms Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Males Synonyms Definition Introduction Nonhuman Primates Canines Birds Marine Isopods Conclusion Cross-References References Alteration Alternating Attention Alternative Adaptive Peaks Synonyms Definition Introduction Alternative Adaptive Peaks Adaptive Peaks and Personality Conclusion Cross-References References Alternative Mating Tactic Alternative Reproductive Tactics Alternative Strategies Altriciality Life Span Hypothesis Altriciality Lifespan Hypothesis Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction Kinship Altruism or Inclusive Fitness Direct Reciprocity Indirect Reciprocity Group Selection Spatial Cooperation Conclusion Cross-References References Altruism Advertises Cooperativeness Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Altruism Advertises Generosity Synonyms Definition Introduction Public Generosity as a Status Signal Conclusion Cross-References References Altruism Among Nonkin Definition Introduction Evolutionary Altruism Group Selection Psychological Altruism Conclusion Cross-References References Altruism and Costs to Altruist Synonyms Definition Introduction Cost and Benefit Toward Kin and Nonkin Second-Order Costs: Altruistic Punishment Reputation and Costly Signaling Conclusion Cross-References References Altruism and Watching Eyes Synonyms Definition Introduction Reputational Fitness Benefits of Being Seen to Be Altruistic Altruism and the Watching Eyes Effect Conclusion Cross-References References Altruism Between Relatives Altruism Defined by Benefits Conferred Synonyms Definition Introduction The Puzzle of Altruism Benefits to the Group Benefits to Genetic Relatives Benefits to those Who Helped Previously Conclusion Cross-References References Altruism Displays Cooperative Potential Synonyms Definition References Altruism in Kin Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Hamilton´s Law of Kinship Altruism Studies on Brotherly Care in Female Eusocial Hymenoptera Proximal Mechanisms in Kinship Altruism Conclusion Cross-References References Altruism Norms Synonyms Definition Introduction Kin Selection and Pro-family Norms Altruism Norms and Expectations of Altruism in Society Conclusion Cross-References References Altruistic Behavior Altruistic Nepotism Altruistic Punishment Synonyms Definition Introduction Experimental Evidence Proximate Mechanisms Evolutionary Origins Conclusions Cross-References References Altruistic Punishment and Strong Reciprocity Synonyms Definition Introduction Experimental Evidence Proximate Mechanisms and Evolutionary Origins Conclusion Cross-References References Altruistic Punishment Enhances Reputation Synonyms Definition Introduction The Public Goods Game Benefits in Group Average Earnings Number of Interactions and Reputation Equity Motivations Simulation Models Conclusion Cross-References References Altruistic Rewarding and Punishment Altruistic Suicide Amalgamated Families American Left Amotz Zahavi Synonyms Definition Introduction The Handicap Principle Costly Signalling Under Mate Choice Conclusion Cross-References References Amphimixis Amputated Limbs AN An Abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through Natural Selection An Essay on the Principle of Population Analogical Reasoning Anatomical Adaptations for Fighting Definition Introduction Muscles Human Fists The Head and Face Pain Tolerance Conclusion Cross-References References Ancestor Worship Synonyms Definition Introduction Main Text Conclusion Cross-References References Ancestral Birth Spacing Synonyms Definition Introduction Nonhuman Primate Birth Spacing What Do We Know About Birth Spacing In Our Human Ancestors? Evolutionary Optimality Models of Birth Spacing Proximate Mechanisms Underlying Birth Spacing Differences Between Women and Between Births Predictions Which Have Not Consistently Been Upheld in the Research Evidence Do Ancestral Birth Spacing Patterns Remain in Modern Industrialized Societies? Conclusion: Should Women in Modern Industrialized Societies Space Births More Than 2 Years Apart? Cross-References References Ancestral Environment Ancestral Threats Versus Modern Threats Introduction Ancestral Threats Modern Threats Conclusion Cross-References References Ancestry Ancient Homosexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction The Multitude of Same-Sex Attractions Conclusion Cross-References References Ancient Music Androgen Androgenic Hormone Anger Proneness Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Models of Anger Mechanisms of Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Angry Personality Animal Behavior Animal Communication Animal Emotions Animal Intelligence Animal Signaling Animal Signalling Synonyms Definition Introduction Forms of Animal Signalling Evolutionary Explanations Information, Influence, and Evolution Animal Signalling and Human Behavior Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Animism Anisogamy Anne Campbell Synonyms/Keywords Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Aggression Female Gang Members Conclusion Cross-References References Anonymity Anonymity of Cyberbullying Synonyms Definition Introduction Role of Anonymity Negative Outcomes Associated with Cyberbullying Conclusion Cross-References References Anorectic Anorexia Anorexia Nervosa Synonyms Definition Introduction Adapted-to-Flee-Famine Hypothesis Kin Selection Theory The Model of Parental Manipulation Reproductive Suppression Hypothesis Sexual Competition Hypothesis Social Attention-Holding Power Conclusion Cross-Reference References Anorgasmia Antagonizing Anterior Cerebral Cortex Anthropological Universals Anthropologist Anthropology Anthropomorphism Synonyms Definition Introduction Anthropomorphism and Perspective-Taking Anthropomorphism of Nonhuman Animals Anthropomorphism as a Critical Tool Anthropomorphism and Anecdotes Anthropomorphism of Animal-Human Chimeras Conclusion References Anti-cuckoldry Anti-cuckoldry Adaptations Anti-cuckoldry Tactics Antigay Bullying Antimicrobial Hypothesis Antimicrobial Hypothesis, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Spice Use Through the Ages and Across Regions Antimicrobial Hypothesis of Spices Conclusion Cross-References References Antinatalism Anti-natalism Definition Introduction The Philosophy of Anti-natalism The Human Bias Toward Optimism Humans Choosing to Delay and Forgo Reproduction Conclusion References Antinatalism Key Text Antinatalist Philosophy of David Benatar Anting Synonyms Definition Introduction Forms of Anting and Its Global Prevalence Hypotheses for the Function of Anting Conclusion Cross-References References Antipathy Antipredator Behavior Antipredator Calling Antipredator Vocalization Anti-predator Vocalization Antipredatory Behavior Antisocial Synonyms Definition Introduction Antisocial Conclusion Cross-References References Antisocial Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Models of Antisocial Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Antisocial Personalities Antisocial Personality Antisocial Personality Disorder Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) Anxiety Synonyms Definition Introduction Anxiety Disorders Treatment of Anxiety Disorders Conclusion Cross-References References Anxiety (Randolph Nesse) Synonyms Definition Introduction Anxiety as a Useful Defense Error Management Theory and Cognitive Biases Biases in Anxiety and Hazard-Detection Selection Is Slow and Subject to Constraints Conclusion Cross-References References Anxiety Disorders Synonyms Definition Introduction The Anxiety Disorders Anxiety and Fear The Function of Anxiety and Fear Anxiety-Like Responses in Non-Human Species Anxiety and Defense Response to Individual Threat Cues Optimal Threshold of Response to Cues of Threat Optimal Levels of Trait Anxiety Conclusion Cross-References References Anxiety of Strangers Aplysia Synonyms Definition Introduction Habituation and Sensitization in Aplysia Conclusion Cross-References References Apoptosis Aposematism Synonyms Definition Introduction What Makes Warning Signals Efficient? Theoretical Expectations and Cognitive Aspects Secondary Defenses Can Vary Too Variation in Secondary Defenses Can Lead to Cheating How Does Aposematism Originate and Evolve? Aposematism and Multimodality Conclusion Cross-References References Apparel Appeal to Nature Fallacy Appearance Appearance Enhancement Effort Appearance/Beauty in Girls Synonyms Definition Introduction Cultural Differences in Beauty Attractiveness Physical Attractiveness in Females Beauty Before Puberty Beauty and Dominance in Girls Evolutionary Benefits of Beauty in Females Conclusion Cross-References References Appearance-Reality Task Appeasement Applications of Evolutionary Psychology Applied Behavior Analysis Appraisals: Construals Appraised Helplessness and Self-Slaughter Apprehension Apprenticeship Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Approximate Number System Aptation Aquatic Arbitrary Synonyms Definition Introduction Arbitrariness in Language Iconicity in Language Conclusion Cross-References References Archaeological Records Definition Introduction Archaeological Records Conclusion Cross-References References Archaic Adaptive Introgression Archeology Architectural Acoustics Archival Research Ardipithecus Group Synonyms Definition Introduction Discoveries and Initial Arguments Classification and Hominid Status Locomotion Ecology and Behavior Repercussions for the Savanna Hypothesis of Human Origins Repercussions for the Chimpanzee Model of Human Origins Conclusion Cross-References References Ardipiths Arena Display Argument from Nature Arguments Arithmetic Mimicry Arizona Life History Battery (ALHB) Arousability Arranged Marriages Synonyms Definition Introduction Arranged Marriage Is Normative in Most Preindustrial Societies Arranged Marriage Is Linked to Alliance Formation and the Retention of Rank and Resources Arranged Marriage Is a Mechanism of Norm Enforcement Arranged Marriage Is an Evolved Practice with a Deep Evolutionary History Two Evolutionary Models of Arranged Marriage Key Factors Affecting Who Controls Marriage Decisions Age of Marriage Gender Material Wealth Titles, Rights, Statuses, and Offices Family Alliances Economic Independence Laws and Institutions Arranged Marriage Is Patterned by Subsistence and Social Organization Cross-References References Art Definition Introduction The Adaptive Function(s) of Art Prehistoric/Erotic Art A Sexual-Fantasy Theory of the Evolutionary Origins of Art The Adaptive Function(s) of Narrative Art The Evolution of Gothic Art Conclusion Cross-References References Art Production, Appreciation, and Fitness Synonyms Definition Introduction Ethology, Ecology, and Adaptation Conclusion Cross-References References Articulation Articulatory Loop Artificial Insemination Artificial Selection Artificial Stimulus Artificially Exaggerated Stimulus Artistic Expression As a Precursor to Partner Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Costly Mate Retention Tactics That Predict Intimate Partner Violence Sex Differences in Cost-Inflicting Mate Retention Tactics Men´s Use of Cost-Inflicting Mate Retention Tactics and Women´s Fertility Conclusion Cross-References References ASD Asexual Reproduction Asocial Assault Assessing Faithfulness Assessing Genetic Similarity Assessment of Fighting Ability Synonyms Definition Introduction What Would a Cognitive Program that Assesses Fighting Ability Look Like? Evidence for a Cognitive Program that Assesses Fighting Ability Sex Differences in Fighting Ability and Its Assessment Evidence that Assessment of Fighting Ability Is Species Typical Conclusion Cross-References References Assessment of Unfaithfulness Assimilation Synonyms Definition Introduction Jean Piaget´s Genetic Theory of Learning Social Judgment Formation Intercultural Relations and Acculturation Strategies Conclusion Cross-References References Assisted Reproduction Assisted Suicide Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Associationism Associations Associative Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction Historical Background of Associative Learning The Study of Gastrointestinal System and Its Role in Classical Conditioning The Evolution of Classical Conditioning Further Conditioning: Second-Order Conditioning, Generalization, and Discrimination Second-Order Conditioning Generalization Stimulus Discrimination Classical Conditioning and Emotional Functioning The Contributions of Edward Thorndike in the Study of Associative Learning The Contributions of Skinner in the Study of Associative Learning Types of Reinforcement Responses with Punishing Qualities Associationism as a Theory of Mental Structure Contemporary Study of Associative Learning The Rescorla-Wagner Model of Classical Conditioning The Role of Prediction Error in the Study of Associative Learning Conclusion Cross-References References Associative Tool Behavior Assortative Mating Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Considerations and Possible Functions of AM Mechanisms Underlying AM Assortative Mating for Various Characteristics Consequences of AM Conclusions Cross-References References Assortment Athletic Competition Atrophy Attachment Attachment in Adulthood Synonyms Definition Introduction Pair Bonds as Attachment Relationships The Defining Features of Attachment Bonds From Parents to Peers: The Gradual Transfer of Attachment Functions Similarities Between Pair Bonds and the Child´s Bond to Its Caregiver Neurobiological Evidence of the Pair Bond as an Attachment Relationship in Adulthood Individual Variations in Romantic Attachment The Measurement of Individual Variations in Adult Attachment The Developmental Continuity of Individual Differences in Attachment Adult Attachment and Relationship Quality Adult Attachment and Emotion Regulation Romantic Attachment or Reproductive Strategies? Conclusion Cross-References References Attachment Opportunity Attachment Parenting Attachment Security Attachment Theory Definition Early Years Use of Attachment Behaviors Separations and Reunions Sensitivity of Care Measurement of Individual Differences in Infant Attachment Measurement and Development of Adult Attachment Are Adult Close Relationship Attachment Relationships? Attachment Internal Working Models and Hierarchies Attachment Stability Conclusion Cross-References References Attack Attention Synonyms Definition Introduction Attentional Process: Selective Attention, Divided Attention, Sustained Attention, and Alternating Attention Selective Attention Divided Attention Sustained Attention Alternating Attention Attention Disorders Conclusion Cross-References References Attention and Memory Synonyms Definition Introduction Dangers and Fear-Relevant Stimuli Attraction and Other Positive Aspects in the Environment Self-Relevant Information Conclusions Cross-References References Attention and Perception Synonyms Definition Introduction Capture by Predatory Threat Attunement Toward Fearful Messages from Others Relationship Maintenance and Procurement Attention to Nutritional Resources Conclusion Cross-References References Attentional Capture Attire Attitude Attraction Attraction During High Fertility Attraction During Ovulation Synonyms Definition Introduction Ovulatory Shifts in Women´s Mate Preferences Ovulatory Shifts in Women´s Behavior Ovulatory Shifts in Men´s Attraction to Women Conclusion Cross-References References Attractive Attractiveness Attractiveness and Anger-Proneness Synonyms Definition Introduction Attractiveness Attractiveness and Anger Conclusion Cross-References References Attractiveness Effort Attribution of Human Traits Attribution of Intentionality Audition Auditory Cerebral Cortex Auditory Cortex Auditory Nervous System Auditory Neurobiology Synonyms Definition Introduction Structure of the Auditory System Primary and Secondary Auditory Cortex The Secondary Auditory Cortex Mechanosensor Conclusion Cross-References References Auditory Perception Auditory Properties of Rooms Auditory System Auditory System, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Outer Ear The Middle Ear The Inner Ear Cochlea Otolith Conclusion Cross-References References Aunt Care Synonyms Definitions Introduction Laterality and Gender Effects Impact of Aunt Care on Development in Minority Families Aunt Care and Aunts Conclusion References Aural Perception Aurelio José Figueredo Definition Private Life Academic Education Major Contributions to Evolutionary Psychology Cross-References List of Related Entries References Australopithecus aethiopicus Australopithecus africanus Definition Introduction History Anatomy Evolutionary Relationships Conclusion Cross-References References Australopithecus boisei Australopithecus garhi Definition Introduction Anatomy Evolutionary Relationships Contemporaneous with Cutmarked Bone Conclusion Cross-References References Australopithecus Group Synonyms Definition Introduction History Locomotion Brain Size, Body Size, and Sexual Dimorphism Tool Use Conclusion Cross-References References Australopithecus robustus Australopiths Author Autism Synonyms Definition Introduction Identifying Autism Increasing Prevalence of Autism Interest to Evolutionary Psychologists Alternative Cognitive Models for Autism Current Issues Conclusion Cross-References References Autism Spectrum Disorder Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Autistic Disorder Autobiographical Memory Automatic Functioning Autonomic Nervous System Avenge Aversion Avian Clutch Size Avian Sperm Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Extra-pair Paternity in Birds Conclusion Cross-References References Avoidance Avoiding Stigmatization Synonyms Definition Introduction Stigmatization Hiding Stigmas Controlling Stigmas Conclusion Cross-References References Awareness Axons B B. F. Skinner and Behaviorism Synonyms Definition Introduction Verbal Behavior The Philosophy of Behaviorism Social Applications of Behaviorism Conclusions Cross-References References BA Bab-El-Mandeb Strait Synonyms Definition Introduction The Bab-El-Mandeb Strait and its Evolutionary Importance Conclusion References Baby Brain Baby Schema Baby Talk (BT) Babysitting Back-Burner Relationships Badge Badges of Status Bait Fishing Synonyms Definition Introduction Bait Fishing by Water Birds Origins of Bait Fishing Baiting Behaviors in Other Species Conclusion Cross-References References Baiting Balance Balance and Motion Synonyms Definition Introduction The Vestibular System The Bony and Membranous Labyrinth Semicircular Canals Vestibular Ganglion Vestibular Nuclear Complex The Cerebellum The Cortex Alcohol and Balance Conclusion Cross-References References Balance System Band Societies Barbara Smuts and Robert Smuts Introduction Barbara Smuts Robert Smuts Conclusion Cross-References References Bargaining Model of Suicidal Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Conflicts of Interest, Costly Signaling, and Suicidal Behavior Powerlessness, Fitness Threats, and Suicidal Behavior Cross-Cultural Research on Suicidal Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Baringa´s (1996) Crayfish Synonyms Definition Introduction Background on Social Behavior The Behavioral and Environmental Influences on Social Status The Underlying Neurobiology of Social Status Conclusion Cross-References References Bateman´s Principle Bateman´s Principle: Sex Differences in Reproductive Success Variance Synonyms Definition Introduction/History Evidence in Humans Other Factors Conclusion References Battering Battle Bawling Bayes Net Theory Bayes Theorem Be Forgiving Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Functions of Forgiveness Be Forgiving Conclusion Cross-References References Beauty Beauty Aids Beauty Products Bed-Sharing Behavior Elimination Behavior in Groups Behavior Patterns Behavior that Became Extinct Behavioral Adaptations to Variation in Human Sex Ratios Behavioral and Mental Traits for Navigating Social Hierarchies Behavioral Changes: Overt Responses Behavioral Economics Definition Introduction George Katona Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky Richard Thaler Vernon Smith The Invisible Hand Neuroeconomics Conclusion Cross-References References Behavioral Engagement Behavioral Evolution Behavioral Flexibility Behavioral Game Theory Behavioral Genetics Behavioral Immune System Behavioral Inheritance Behavioral Manifestations of Adaptations Behavioral Matching Behavioral Modernity Behavioral Plasticity vs. Natural Selection Behavioral Synchrony Behavioral Syndromes Behaviorism Behaviors Behavioural Genetics Being a Sucker Belief Beliefs Beneficial Side Effects Synonyms Definition Introduction Beneficial Side Effects: Relevance Beneficial Side Effects: Clinical Implications Conclusion References Benefit and Cost Asymmetries Benefit Group Relative to Other Groups Synonyms Definition Introduction Ingroup Favoritism in Animals Ingroup Favoritism in Humans Explanations of Ingroup Favoritism Conclusion Cross-References References Benefit Provisioning Synonyms Definition Introduction Mate Retention Domains, Categories, and Tactics Benefit-Provisioning Behaviors Positive Inducements Public Signals of Possession Mate Value and Benefit-Provisioning Behaviors Personality and Benefit-Provisioning Behaviors Conclusion Cross-References References Benefit Provisioning Domain Benefit to Another at Cost to Self Synonyms Definition Introduction Accepted Theory #1: Kin Selection Accepted Theory #2: Reciprocal Altruism Accepted Theory #3: Indirect Reciprocity Accepted Theory #4: Costly Signaling Accepted Theory #5: Group Selection Open Debate: Strong Reciprocity Conclusion Cross-References References Benefit-Provisioning Behaviors Benefit-Provisioning Mate Retention Behaviors Benefits Benefits of Commitment and Marriage Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Marriage? Marriage Is a Form of Mate Guarding Marriage Facilitates Reciprocal Division of Labor in the Raising of Children Marriage Reduces Transmission of Diseases Through Sexual Intercourse Marriage Is a Reciprocal Care Relationship Conclusion References Benefits of Distractibility Benefits of Gossip Benefits of Profound Kinship Connectedness (and Problems from a Lack Thereof) Through an Evolutionary Mismatch Lens Synonyms Definition Introduction Effects of (a Lack of) Close Connections with Kin in the Modern Environment Conclusion Cross-References References Benefits of Short-Term Mating Synonyms Definition Introduction Men´s Short-Term Mating Benefits Women´s Short-Term Mating Benefits Conclusion Cross-References References Benefits to Kin Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Overview: Suicide and Benefits to Kin Conclusion Cross-References References Benevolence Bereavement Following a Child´s Death Bernhard Fink Definition Introduction Facial Attractiveness, and 2D:4D Ratio Body Morphology and Movement Conclusion Cross-References References Betrayal Better Genetic Material Better Never to Have Been Synonyms Definition Introduction Antinatalism Conclusion Cross-References References Between-Community Raiding Between-Group Competition Between-Group Hierarchy Between-Group Killing Bias Biased Grandparental Investment Biases Biases as a Product of Bounded Rationality Error Management Biases Biases as Artifacts References Biculturalism Bidirectional Violence Big Brain Evolution Big Five Big Man Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Are ``Big Men´´ Big Men? Conclusion Cross-References References Bigamy Bilingualism Synonyms Definition Introduction Physiological Adaptations Promoting the Evolution of Language Geographical Pressures Leading to Either Monolingualism or Bilingualism Sociocultural Pressures Leading to Either Monolingualism or Bilingualism Hemispheric Lateralization and Specialization in Language Processing Conclusion Cross-References References Biliousness Binet-Simon Tests Binge Eating Disorder Binocular Disparity Synonyms Definition Introduction Use of Binocular Disparity for Depth Perception in Humans and Nonhuman Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Binocular Parallax Bioacoustics Bioethics Biofield Therapies Biofunction Biography of Charles Darwin Biolinguistics Biological Determinism Biological Ecology Biological Exuberance Biological Function Synonyms Definition Introduction Functions, Teleology, and Normativity Causal Role Functions Selected Effect Functions Fitness-Contribution Functions Conclusion Cross-References References Biological Markets Biological Sex of Friend Biologically Significant Stimulus Biologist Biology of Homosexuality Biology of Human Gender, The Synonyms Definitions Introduction Gender and Social Influences Gender and Biology Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Biology of Language Biology Versus Environment Biometrical Modelling Biomusicology Biosemiotics Definition History and Overview Conclusion Cross-References References Biosocial Biosocial Approach to Sociology Biosocial Model of Social Status Biosocial Research Biosociology Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Sociology: Applying Evolutionary Theory to Sociology In Search of Neurobiological Mechanisms of Sociality Genetic Factors in Social Behavior and Development of Social Science Genomics Fluid and Nascent Emerging Boundaries Between Biosociological Approaches Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Biosociology of Dominance and Deference Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolved Adaptations to Hierarchical Social Relations Biosocial Mechanisms of Social Dominance Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Biosociology of Social Dominance Hierarchy Biosociology of Social Status Hierarchy Biparental Care Synonyms Definition Introduction The Biparental Care Hypothesis and the Evolution of Monogamy Bipedalism and Biparental Care in Human Evolution Biparental Care and Human Psychological Dispositions Conclusion Cross-References References Bipedal Gait Bipedal Locomotion Synonyms Definition Introduction Potential Origins for Bipedal Locomotion Predator Avoidance Thermoregulation Arboreal Locomotion Gathering and Carrying Food Biology of Bipedalism Ardipithecus Ramidus Conclusion Cross-References References Bipedal Motion Bipedalism Bird Clutch Size Synonyms Definition Introduction David Lack and Clutch Size Parent-Offspring Conflict Clutch Size and Conflict Intrabrood Sibling Conflict and Clutch Fitness Sibling Competition and Selection on Clutch Size Offspring Hierarchies Siblicide Conclusion Cross-References References Bird Tool Use Synonyms Definition Introduction Some Clarifications What Is Tool Use? Anatomy of a Tool User Tool Use in the Wild: Four Case Studies Egyptian Vultures (Neophron percnopterus) Green-Backed Herons (Ardeola striata) Woodpecker Finches (Cactospiza pallida) New Caledonian Crows (Corvus moneduloides) Tool Use in Captivity: Three Case Studies Goffin´s Cockatoos (Cacatua goffini) Kea (Nestor notabalis) Rooks (Corvus frugilegus) Is Nest-Building an Example of Tool Use? Tool Use and the Avian Brain Is Tool Use Intelligent? Conclusion Cross-References References Birds Birth Attendants Birth Control Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolutionary Roots of Birth Control Conclusion Cross-References References Birth Gaps Birth Interval Birth Level Birth Order Synonyms Definition Introduction Cognitive Development Physical Development Pitfalls of Birth Order Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Birth Order and Parental Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction How Parental Investment Is Related to Birth Order Intelligence and Education Personality and Social Attitudes Conclusion Cross-References References Birth Order and Sibling Relationships Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Theories of Family Relationships Sibling Conflict Sibling Cooperation Asymmetry in Sibling Relationships: Origins of Birth Order Effects Birth Order and Cognitive Performance Birth Order and Personality Birth Order and Parenting Conclusion Cross-References References Birth Position Birth Spacing and Birth Order Synonyms Definition Introduction Birth Spacing, Birth Order, and its Influence On Child Personality, Intelligence, Sexuality, and Health Birth Spacing, Fertility, and Child Outcome Birth Order, Personality, and Parental Investment Birth Order, Birth Spacing, Intelligence, and the Only-Child Dilemma Birth Order and Sexuality Birth Order and Mate Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Birthing Complications Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Birth Anatomical Factors and Birthing Complications What Role Do Psychological and Emotional Factors Play in Making Birth Complicated for Humans? What Role Do Modern Medical Interventions Play in Making Birth Complicated for Humans? Conclusion Cross-References References Birthrights and Bloodlines Synonyms Definition Introduction The Generational Depth of Bloodlines and the Breadth of Co-descendants Conclusion Cross-References References Bisexual Behavior Bisexuality Bistability Bitter Blank Slate Blank Slate, The Synonyms Definitions Introduction Human Nature and the Role of the Environment: Instruction Versus Selection? Fear of Genetic Determinism, the False Nature-Nurture Dichotomy, and (Intraindividual) Gene-Environment Interactions BS Assumptions and Confirmation Bias Mislead Interpretation of Epigenetic Studies of Experience-Induced Gene Regulation Changes Unconstrained Visions of Human Nature and Leftist Political Homogeneity among Social Scientists Conclusion Cross-References References Blast Injury Blended Family Blending Bleuler´s Syndrome (Obsolete) Blindsight Synonyms Definition Introduction Phenomenology of Blindsight Blindsight and the Brain Mechanisms of Conscious Perception Neurobiology of Blindsight Conclusion Cross-References References Blood Feuds Blood Injection Injury Phobia Blood Sharing by Vampire Bats Synonyms Definition Introduction Why do Vampire Bats Share Food? Conclusion Cross-References References Blow Job Blubbering BMI Boar Effect Body and Hand Gestures Body Attractiveness Definition Introduction The Waist-to-Hip Ratio Hypothesis Body Size Breast Size Men´s Body Shape Conclusion Cross-References References Body Disposal Body Fat Percent and Distribution Synonyms Definition Introduction The Role of Body Fat in Mate Selection Cross-Cultural Judgments Conclusion Cross-References References Body Language Body Mass Body Mass Index Body Modification Synonyms Definition Introduction Extreme Modification Evolutionary Implications Cross-References References Body Ornamentation Body Parts Awareness Body Position Body Posture Synonyms Definition Introduction Dominance, Posture and Behavior The Evolutionary Benefits of Dominance and Dominant Behaviors Hormones: The Physiological Basis of Dominance Behavioral Consequences of Dominant Cues: Mate Preferences and Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Body Reserves and Food Storage Synonyms Definition Introduction Theories of Appetite and Obesity Avoiding Starvation Mechanistic Models Optimality Models Neutral Selection Exploiting Gluts Conclusion Cross-References References Body Shape Body Temperature Regulation Synonyms Definition Introduction Fundamental Thermoregulatory Circuits Effector Mechanisms for Body Temperature Regulation Thermosensory Pathways Influence the Nerve Activity Controlling Thermoeffectors Areas for Future Research Conclusion Cross-References References BOLD-MRI Bond Bonding Bone Lissoir Synonyms Definition Introduction The Bone Lissoir and Its Importance Conclusion References Bonobo Sexuality References Bonus Family Book Booty Call Booty Calls Booty-Calls Border Patrols Borderline Tool Boredom as an Adaptation Synonyms Definition Introduction Reasons for Boredom Boredom as an Evolutionary Adaptation Evolutionary Mismatch Between Modern Environments and Innate Capacities for Boredom Conclusion Cross-References References Bottle Feeding Synonyms Definition Bottle Feeding Is an Evolutionary Mismatch Introduction Formula Is a Poor Substitute for Breastmilk, and Bottle Feeding also Puts Mothers at Risk Bottle Feeding Simulates Child Loss Bottle Feeding Increases the Likelihood of Autism in Your Next Child Bottle Feeding and Caesarean Sections Putting Evolved Mechanisms Back on Track Conclusion Cross-References References Bounded Rationality Synonyms Definition Introduction The Theory of Bounded Rationality Influence Conclusion Cross-References References Bow-Wow Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Boy and Girl Social Learning Boys Boys Bully More Than Girls Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Bullying Intervention and Implications Conclusion Cross-References References Boys Physical Bullying Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Do Males Engage in More Physical Bullying? Conclusion Cross-References References Boys´ Rough-and-Tumble Play Introduction to Rough-and-Tumble Play Sex Differences in Play Rough-and-Tumble Play as Training for Fighting Skills Rough-and-Tumble Play for the Development of Cognitive Skills and Social Competence Conclusion References Brachiation Brain at Birth Synonyms Definition Introduction How Large Are Mammalian Brains at Birth, and Why? How Large Are Mammalian Brain/Body Ratios at Birth, and Why? Human Neonatal Brain Size and Secondary Altriciality Conclusion Cross-References References Brain Community Structure Brain Death Brain Development Synonyms Definition Introduction Stages of Neuron Development Influence of Genetics, Epigenetics, and Genetic Disorders on Brain Development Influence of Experience on Brain Development Influence of Diet and Environmental Toxins on Brain Development Conclusion Cross-References References Brain Development in Infancy Brain Energy Absorption Brain Evolution Brain Evolution Resulting from Cooking Synonyms Definition Introduction Encephalization and Trade-Off Theories Cooking: The Human Universal Cooked Starches, Large Brain A Case for Cooking: The Modern Raw Foodist Nonthermal Processing: An Alternative Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Brain Fitness Brain Growth Brain Growth in the First Year Synonyms Definitions Introduction Embryology of Brain Development Normal Developmental Process in the First Year Head Circumference Brain Volume Biology of Brain Development in the First Year Myelination Dendritic Proliferation Pruning Glial Development Imaging Studies of Brain Development Primitive Reflexes and Disappearing Signs Postnatal Developmental Milestones During the First Year Motor Development Language Development Social and Cognitive Development Conclusion Cross-References References Brain Imaging Synonyms Definitions Introduction History of Brain Imaging Conventional and Contrast Radiography Ultrasonography Computed Tomography (CT Scan) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Nuclear Medicine Imaging Magnetoencephalogram Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Brain Imaging Modalities Conclusion Cross-References References Brain Lesion Brain Lesion Studies Synonyms Definition Introduction Historical Brain Lesion Studies Modern Brain Lesion Studies Simulated Brain Lesions Conclusion Cross-References References Brain Mapping Studies Brain Metabolic Costs Brain Size Brain Size and Intelligence Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Animal Intelligence? Absolute and Relative Brain Size Brain Complexity and Intelligence Conclusion Cross-References References Brain Size Growth in Humans and Nonhuman Primates Synonyms Definition Introduction Brain Size Differences Brain Development Brain Size and Diet Brain Size and Intelligence Conclusion Cross-References References Brain Structure-Function Mapping Breakup Breast Feeding Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Breastfeeding Variation of Breastfeeding in Animals Primate Breastfeeding How Is Human Breastfeeding Different? Social Factors that Assist Women´s Breastfeeding Benefits of Breastfeeding Conclusion Cross-References References Breast Feeding and Mother-Infant Attachment Definition Introduction Background Breastfeeding and Sensitivity Breastfeeding and Attachment Interventional Studies Skin-to-Skin Contact Maternal-Infant Bonding Conclusion Cross-References References Breast Milk Composition Synonyms Definition Introduction Components of Human Breast Milk Lipids Nonprotein Nitrogen Antibodies Carbohydrates Factors Influencing Breast Milk Composition Time-Dependent Changes Maternal Factors Conclusion Cross-References References Breastfeeding Benefits Synonyms Definition Introduction Mortality Rate Infection Risk Additional Benefits Benefits for the Mother Conclusion Cross-References References Breastfeeding in Modern Environments Synonyms Definition Introduction Health Benefits and Risks of Breastfeeding Other Benefits (and Costs) of Breastfeeding Organizations Influencing Women´s Breastfeeding Decisions Differences in Breastfeeding Between and Within Mothers Other Factors Associated with Breastfeeding Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Breeding Breeding Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Breeding Systems Pure-Breeding Inbreeding Outbreeding Crossbreeding Conclusion References Brett Laursen Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Exchange Theory Evolutionary Psychology A Developmental Model of Social Exchange in Adolescent Romantic Relationships Conclusion Cross-References References Brian Boyd Definition Introduction Art as Play with Pattern The Evolution of Fiction Social Underpinnings of Art and Storytelling Artistic and Biological Adaptation Evolutionary Theory and the Study of Art and Literature The Importance of Attention Multilevel Analysis Conclusion Cross-References References Brian Hare Synonyms Definition Introduction Professional Work Theory of Mind in Chimpanzees Conclusion Cross-References References Bridal Cost Synonyms Definition Introduction Pre-Mortem Inheritance Kinship Organizations and Mode of Production Spread and Escalation of Dowry Payments Equalizing Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Bride Price Bright Male Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Components of the Bright Male Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Broca´s and Wernicke´s Aphasia Synonyms Definition Introduction Comparative Anatomy of Speech and Language Evolution of Motor Speech and Language Behaviors Conclusions Cross-References References Broca´s and Wernicke´s Areas Synonyms Definition Introduction Functional Localization and Hemispheric Specialization: The Dysphasias A Structural Marker for Language Areas? The Evolution of Broca´s and Wernicke´s Regions: Do Nonhuman Species Have Cortical Regions That Are Homologues? Conclusion Cross-References References Brodmann Areas Synonyms Definition Introduction Methodical and Technical Basis Discussion of the Concept of Brodmann Areas Recent Mapping Strategies Recent Understanding of Cortical Areas Conclusion Cross-References References Brodmann Areas 21, 22, 41 and 42 Brodmann Areas 44 and 45 Broken Hill Man Bromance Brood Care Synonyms Definition Introduction Cooperative Care Brood Parasites Conclusion Cross-References References Brood Defense Brother Brothers Brothers and Sisters Bruce J. Ellis Definition Introduction Private Life Academic Education Major Contributions to Evolutionary Psychology Cross-References References Brutality Bulimia Nervosa Bullying Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Perspectives on Bullying Social Information Processing Theory Social Dominance Theory The Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Agency Social-Ecological Framework Impact of Bullying Victims Bullies Bully-Victims Bystanders Factors Involved in Bullying Gender Age/Grade Level Disability Social Skills Empathy Positive Psychological Traits and Bullying Emotional Regulation Internalizing Symptoms Family Factors Peer and School Factors Broader Social and Cultural Factors Intervention Programs for Bullying Effectiveness of School-Based Prevention and Intervention Programs Methodology and Experimental Design Setting Developmental Level and Outcomes Program Components Review of Effective Bullying Intervention and Prevention Programs Olweus Bullying Prevention Program KiVa Bullying Prevention in Positive Behavioral and Intervention Supports Social Emotional Learning Programs Conclusion Cross-References References Burial Burials Synonyms Definition Introduction Earliest Evidence of Ritual Burials Modern Human Burials Ritual Burials and Religion Ritual Burials and the Distinction Between Neanderthals and Modern Humans Conclusion References Burrhus Frederic Skinner Butterfly Mimicry Synonyms Definition Introduction Müllerian Mimicry Evolution of Müllerian Mimicry Batesian Mimicry Conclusion References By-Product Synonyms Definition Introduction Identifying By-Products Relative Importance Across Fields Conclusion Cross-References References By-Product Mutualism By-Products By-Products of Adaptations Synonyms Definition Introduction Morphological By-Products of Adaptations Penis Versus Clitoris and Female Versus Male Nipples Human Chin Human-Like Manual Proportions Physiological By-Products of Adaptations Antibacterial Enzyme and Lactose-Production Regulatory Protein Female Orgasm Neuroplasticity Behavioral By-Products of Adaptations Play Non-conceptive Sex Language Ritualized Behavior Patterns Psychological By-Products of Adaptations Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References C C < Rb Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Cacogenics ``Cads and Dads´´ Cainophobia Calculated Calculating Relatedness Calculating Starvation Risk Synonyms Definition Introduction Mortality Risks and Rates Conclusion Cross-References References Calidris pugnax Callosotomized Patients Callosotomy Patients Callous-Unemotional Traits Camouflage Synonyms Definition Introduction A Short History of the Study of Camouflage How Different Types of Camouflage May Work Advantages of Camouflage in Nature How Plasticity and Behavior May Facilitative Camouflage How the Efficacy of Camouflage Links to Evolutionary Psychology Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Cancer Synonyms Definition Introduction Cancer Evolution Early Detection and Intervention Combination Therapy Individualized Cancer Therapy Mismatch Repair Conclusion Cross-References References Canines Synonyms Definition Introduction Morality in Canines Moral Behaviors Moral Motivations Moral Cognition Moral Systems Conclusion Cross-References References Cardiac Rate Cardiovascular Collapse Cardiovascular Metabolism Career Women Caregiver Caregiving Caregiving Sensitivity Carnal Knowledge Carnivorans Carnivore Carnivorous Carruthers on Massive Modularity Synonyms Definition Introduction The Nature of Modularity The Argument from Biology The Argument from Task Specificity The Argument from Computational Tractability Conclusion Cross-References References Carving Castes Castigation Casual Mating Casual Sex Synonyms Definition and Inclusion Introduction Sexual Strategies Theory Predictors of Casual Sex Sex and Age Alcohol and Other Substances Sociosexuality and Other Personality Characteristics Self-Esteem Ovulation and Shifts in Desire and Mate Preferences Possible Outcomes and Consequences of Casual Sex Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Unwanted Pregnancy Likelihood of Orgasm and Pleasure Well-Being Negative Postcoital Emotions Regret Relational Outcomes Sexual Harassment Conclusion Cross-References References Casualty Catastrophe Catastrophes Categorization Categorization by Age Synonyms Definition Introduction What Are Age Categories or Groups? Variability of Age Categorization How Do We Categorize by Age? Visual Perception and Estimation of Age Biological and Social Cues to Age The Functions of Age Categorization Cognitive Efficiency: Age Categorization of Others Defining Own Identity: Age Categorization of the Self The Risks of Age Categorization Conclusion Cross-References References Categorization by Sex Synonyms Definition Introduction Theories of Social Categorization Cues to Sex Categorization Visual Cues Face Bodies Other Sensory Cues Modulations to Sex Categorization Processes Social Cognitive Motivational and Evolutionarily Informed Influences Evaluative and Broader Implications Mate Selection Threat and Trait Evaluations Conclusion Cross-References References Category Salience Cathedral Acoustics Synonyms Definition Introduction Earliest Acoustic Amplifiers Renaissance Acoustics and Religious Music Modern Cathedral Technology Conclusion References Catherine Salmon Definition Erotica Family Interactions Body Image Evaluation Conclusion Cross-References References Causal Attributions Synonyms Definition Introduction Causal Attributions: Types Evolution of Causal Attributions Clinical Relevance of Causal Attributions Conclusion References Causal Cognition Causal Inferences Causal Reasoning Definition Introduction Causal Reasoning Versus Causal Learning Descriptive Versus Normative Approaches Levels of Analysis: Algorithmic Versus Computational Descriptive Approaches in Causal Reasoning Research Naïve Theory Theories and Causal Power Tool Use Trap Tube-Trap Table Contraptions Tool Selection Ecology and Tool Use General Criticisms of Current Causal Cognition Research Graphical Models Directed, Acyclic Graphs Bayesian Networks Probabilities Versus Contingencies Markov Condition Common Effect and Common Cause Models Conditionality Direct Versus Indirect Causation Intervention Hypothesis-Based Causal Reasoning Diagnostic Reasoning Versus Predictive Reasoning Precedence Treating Typical Conditional Stimuli as Causes and Effects Blocking, Backward Blocking, and Retrospective Revaluation Outcome Maximality and Outcome Additivity Substantive Psychological Theories of Causal Reasoning Mentality ``Causal Reasoning-like Behavior´´ Learning About Cause and Effect Associative Learning Superfluity of Causal Reasoning in Associationist Thought Causal Learning Power PC Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Causal Reasoning in Rats (Blaisdell et al. 2006) Synonyms Definition Introduction Common-Cause Versus Causal-Chain Training Predictions Blaisdell et al.´s Results and Interpretation Conclusion Cross-References References Causal Role Causality Causal-Model Theory Causation Cause Causes of Criminal Behavior Cave Art Cave Painting Cease-Fire Celebrities Cell Death as an Adaptation Against Cancer Synonyms Definition Introduction Metabolic Changes in Cancer: Implications in Cell Death Apoptosis and Its Mechanism Therapeutic Strategies Against Cancer Triggering Apoptosis Conclusion References Census Census Data Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Census Data and Why Is It Advantageous to Evolutionary Psychology? The Methodological Advantages and Disadvantages of Census Data How Has Census Data Been Used to Advance the Evolutionary Sciences? Future Directions and Conclusions Cross-References References Cephalopod Tool Use Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Tool Use? Water as a Tool Octopus Tool Use for Shelter Formation Conclusion Cross-References References Cerebellum, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Cerebral Cortex Cerebrum Ceremonial Interments Ceremonies Cesarean Section Chain of Command Change in Male Hunting Returns Synonyms Definition Introduction Tests of Variation in Male Hunting Production Conclusion Cross-References References Change in Ovulatory Cycle Changes in Adaptation Expression Changes in Self-Esteem Motivate Behavioral Changes Synonyms Definition Introduction Emotional Alarm Cognitive Appraisal Resource Redistribution Conclusion Cross-References References Changes in Self-Esteem: Social Pain Character Characteristic Characteristics of Human Language Characteristics that Help One Stays Alive Charitable Giving (Peter Singer) Synonyms Definition Introduction The Argument from Analogy The Basic Argument Explaining Our Responses Conclusion Cross-References References Charity Synonyms Definition (Merriam-Webster) Introduction Motives for Giving to Charity Evidence for Motives Factors Affecting Giving to Charity Conclusion Cross-References References Charles Darwin Introduction The Man and His Life Before Evolution From Evolution to Natural Selection The Later Years Predecessors Progress France Britain The Origin of Species True Causes Artificial Selection Natural Selection Consilience Reception Fact Not Theory Against Selection Human Beings The Descent of Man From Pseudoscience to Popular Science Today´ Science Becoming a Professional Science Artificial and Natural Selection Consilience Conclusion His Place in Culture American Religion Creationism Social Darwinism Knowledge Conclusion Cross-References References Charles Darwin: Theory of Natural Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction The Origin of Natural Selection The Strength of Natural Selection Difficulties with the Term Difficulties with the Theory Prior to Publication of the Origin Subsequent to Publication of the Origin Natural Selection and Other Evolutionary Mechanisms in Darwin Natural Selection and Human Evolution Summary Cross-References References Charles Darwin: Theory of Sexual Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Selection Secondary Sexual Traits and Mate Choice Male-Male Competition and Sexually Selected Traits: Armaments Versus Ornaments Female Choice and Male Modification Evolution of Female Preference Cryptic Female Choice Why Do Female Choose? Male Choice, Female Modification, and the Theory of Male Sex Drive Sexual Selection and Adaptation Sexual Selection and Rapid Evolution Sexual Selection and Speciation Sexual Selection and the Problem of Males Cost of Sexual Selection Sexual Selection and Human Evolution Mating Systems, Mate Choice, and Female Beauty Male Choice and Female Modification in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Charles Lyell Biobibliographical Studies Poulett Scrope (1797-1876) Uniformitarianism Darwin Correspondence Project Principles of Geology Antiquity of Man Lyell and Darwin The Horner Family Lyell´s Loess Legion Lyell and Darwin Interact References Chase-Away Hypothesis, The Definition Introduction Darwin-Bateman Paradigm Life History Trade-offs Intersexual Conflict Over Female Optima and Sexually Antagonistic Coevolution SAC Over Hormonal Control of Female Reproduction Costs of Mating and Collateral Damage Conflict Over Mating Frequency Sensory Bias Resistance to Sensory Bias Conclusion Cross-References References Chastisement Cheat Cheater Detection Definition Introduction Cheater Detection and Social Exchange The Wason Card Selection Task Supporting Evidence Controversies Conclusion Cross-References References Cheater Detection Adaptations Definitions Introduction Evidence for Cheating Detection Adaptations Conclusion Cross-References References Cheater Memory Advantage Cheating Chew-Chew Theory Child Abuse Child Abuse and Bullying Synonyms Definition Introduction Forms and Prevalence Risk Factors Effects on Target Conclusion Cross-References References Child Care Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Accounts of Child Care Need for Child Care in the Contemporary Context Consequences of Child Care Conclusion Cross-References References Child Custody References Child Development Child Endangerment Child Homicide Child Malnutrition Child Maltreatment Child Mortality Synonyms Definition Introduction Child Mortality in Traditional-Living Societies Causes of Child Mortality Kin Effects on Child Mortality Infanticide Child Mortality in State-Level Populations Causes of Child Mortality Gender Biases Conclusion Cross-References References Child Murder Child Neglect Child Spacing Child Support References Childcare Child-Centered Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction Narratives of Child-Centered Education: Multiple Constructions of Child-Centeredness Critical Reflections on Child-Centered Learning Conclusion References Child-Directed Speech (CDS) Childhood Co-residence Duration Childhood Fatalities Childhood Maltreatment Childhood Sexual Abuse Childhood Sexual Victimization Childhood Trauma Childless Women Childrearing Child-Rearing Children and Sibs Share Same Proportion of Genes Synonyms Definition Introduction Relatedness and Kin Investment Conclusion Cross-References References Children Have Greater Reproductive Value than Sibs Synonyms Definition Introduction Reproductive Value and Kin Investment Conclusions Cross-References References Children Without Paternal Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction The Effects of Low Paternal (Versus Maternal) Investment Low Paternal Investment and Adolescent Risk Taking Conclusion Cross-References References Children´s Antipredator Adaptations Synonyms Definition Introduction Neuroanatomical and Physiological Mechanisms Cognitive Mechanisms Cultural Mechanisms and Individual Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Chimpanzee Raiding Synonyms Definition Introduction Intergroup Conflict in Chimpanzees Chimpanzee Social Organization Patterns of Lethal Raiding in Chimpanzees Observations of Lethal Raiding Frequency of Lethal Raiding Adaptive Explanations Resource Defense Hypothesis Imbalance of Power Hypothesis Reduce Rivals Hypothesis Female Recruitment Hypothesis Female-Targeted Attacks Influence of Human Disturbance Relevance to Human Warfare Conclusion Cross-References References Chimpanzee Sexuality References Choice of Sides Chomsky and Language Evolution Cinderella Effect, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Child Abuse Infanticide Discriminative Parental Solitude Cross-References References Circadian Rhythm Circumcision Circumventing Mate Choice Synonyms Definition Introduction Circumventing Mate Choice in Early Courtship Circumventing Mate Choice in Existing Relationships Conclusion Cross-References References Civic Commitment Civic Duty Synonyms Definition The Socialization of Civic Duty Factors Influencing Individual´s Civic Participation Conclusion Cross-References References Civic Engagement Civic Involvement Civic Obligation Civic Participation Civic Responsibility Civil Archives Civil Documents Civil Records Civilization Civilization Division Civilized Norms Clan Classical Conditioning Synonyms Definition Introduction The Study of Gastrointestinal System and its Role in Classical Conditioning The Evolution of Classical Conditioning The Discrepancy Between Unconditioned and Conditioned Responses The Relationship between Basic Affects and Conditioned and Unconditioned Responses Affective Responses that Are Governed by Unconditioned Responses Classical Conditioning and Emotional Functioning Stimuli of External and Internal Nature Biological Predisposition in Learning Facilitating Factors Further Conditioning: Second-Order Conditioning, Generalization, and Discrimination Second-Order Conditioning Generalization Stimulus Discrimination Extinction Experimental Procedures Conclusion Cross-References Reference Classical Twin Design Classically Conditioned Stimulus Cleaver Climacterium Climate and Habitat Diversity Synonyms Definition Introduction General Climates and Habitats of Human Evolution Effects of Environmental Diversity on Human Evolution Variation Selection and Habitat-Specific Hypotheses on Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Climate and Use of Spices Synonyms Definition Introduction The Antimicrobial Theory Cost of Spices How Did It Start? Modern Day Examples Alternative Theories Conclusion Cross-References References Climate Change Climate Fluctuations in the Last 200 Ky Synonyms Definition Introduction Temperature Climate How Did Climate Fluctuations Impact Human Evolution? How Does Climate Change Affect the Environment? What Kinds of Climate Change Did Early Hominins Experience? Conclusion Cross-References References Climax Climax Disorder Climbing Assists Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence from the Wild Chimpanzees Orangutans Gorillas Western Red Colobus Monkeys Evidence from Captivity Conclusion Cross-References References Climbing Tools Clinical Depression Cliques Close Kin Clothing Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Clothing Origin Theories Scientific Evidence Prehistoric Technology Psychology Motives for Wearing Clothes Effects of Wearing Clothes Social Evolution Hunter-Gatherers and Nakedness Clothing and Social Complexity Conclusion Cross-References References Clothing is Distinguished from Terms Like Adornment, Costume and Dress Which Encompass Body Painting, Cosmetics, Scarification... Coalition Coalition Alliance Coalition Formation Coalition Leaders Synonyms Definitions Introduction Coordination in Social Groups Sex and Leadership Leadership Benefits Conclusion Cross-References References Coalition Members Coalitional Aggression Coalitional Hunting Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Coalitional Hunting Effects of Coalitional Hunting on Homo Sapiens Coalitional Hunting and the Evolution of Human Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Coalitional Mate Retention Definition Introduction Evidence of Coalitional Mate Retention Benefits and Costs of Coalitional Mate Retention The Coalitional Mate Retention Inventory Empirical Research on Coalitional Mate Retention Conclusions Cross-References References Coalitional Partner Choice Coalitional Psychology Coalitional Relationships Synonyms Definition Introduction Coalitions in Primates Coalitions in Humans Conclusion References Coalitionary Killing Coalitions Cochlea Synonyms Definition Introduction Structure of the Cochlea Function of the Cochlea Evolutionary Status of the Cochlea Organ of Corti Endolymph and Perilymph Conclusion Cross-References References Code of the Streets Co-development Co-efficient of Genetic Relatedness (r) Coefficient of Relatedness Coefficient of Relationship Coercing Coercion Coercive Control Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Explanations Documented Consequences Conclusion Cross-References References Coercive Controlling Violence Coevolution of the Sexes Co-evolution of the Sexes Cognition Cognitive Ability Cognitive Biases Cognitive Buffer Hypothesis, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence that Large Brains Evolved to Buffer Against Environmental Changes Mechanisms Underlying the CBH Environmental Scenarios Selecting for a Cognitive Buffer Brain Evolution and Life History Theory Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Cognitive Capacities Cognitive Changes in Adolescence References Cognitive Complexity Cognitive Control Cognitive Decline Cognitive Development Cognitive Development in Non-human Primates Key Idea Synonyms Definition Introduction Major Theories Piagetian Stage Theory Vygotsky´s Sociocultural Theory Information Processing Core Knowledge Developmental Contextualism Evolutionary Developmental Psych Cognitive Abilities Across the Lifespan Attention Infancy Childhood Memory Infancy Childhood Language Infancy Childhood Conclusion Cross-References References Cognitive Developmental Science Cognitive Enhancement Cognitive Ethology Definition Introduction Text History Dangers of Anthropomorphism Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Cognitive Map Cognitive Modularity Cognitive Neuroscience Cognitive Ornithology Cognitive Primatology Cognitive Psychology Cognitive Revolution, The Introduction Background Development New Beginnings Computation and Cognition Impact and Aftermath Conclusion Cross-References References Cognitive Schemas Cognitive Science Synonyms Definition Introduction Components of Cognitive Functioning Evolution of Cognitive Science Encephalization and Cognitive Science From Hominid to Artificial Intelligence Conclusion Cross-References References Cognitive Specialization Cognitive Universals Cohabitation Coition Coitus Coitus Interruptus Synonyms Definition Introduction Onanism Types Evolutionary Meaning of Onanism Conclusion Cross-References References Collaboration Collective Action Collective Efficacy Collectives Collectivism Collusion Colonization Effects Colony Size Color Red Synonyms Definition Introduction What Causes Red Color? Red as a Sexually Selected Signal Red as a Socially Selected Signal Red in Context Conclusion Cross-References References Coma dépasse Combat Combat Sport Synonyms Definition Introduction Combat Sports in History Cross-Cultural Correlates of Combat Sport Combat Sports and Gender Combat Sport and Mate Choice Modern Combat Sports Conclusion Cross-References References Combative Sport Combined Oral Contraceptives Comedy Comical Comicality Commitment Commitment Skepticism Cross-References References Committal Practices Committed Relationship Common Knowledge Commonsense Psychology Communal Breeding Communication and Developmental Milestones Synonyms Definition Introduction Language Comprehension Language Production Gesture Conclusion Cross-References References Communication and Social Cognition Synonyms Definitions Introduction Aspects of Communication Aspects of Social Cognition Evolutionary Explanations for Social Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Communication, Cues, and Signals Synonyms Definition Introduction Communication Signals Cues Evolution of Signals Conclusion Cross-References References Community Interest Community Involvement Community Participation Community Principles Companionships Comparative Analyses Comparative Cognition Comparative Cognition in Corvids and Primates Comparative Developmental Psychology Comparative Evidence Synonyms Definition Introduction Phylogeny of Homosexual Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Comparative Neuroanatomy Comparative Phylogenetic Analysis Comparative Psychologist Comparative Psychopathology Comparative Psychopharmacology Comparing Phenotypes Comparison Compensatory Mate Retention Tactics Definition Introduction Compensatory Mate Retention Tactics Conclusion Cross-References References Competition Competition Between Groups Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Between-Group Competition Between-Group Competition and Within-Group Cooperation Competition Between Which Groups? Conclusion Cross-References References Competition for Mates or Resources Required to Mate Competition for Parental Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Parental Investment and Parent-Offspring Conflict Birth Intervals as Components of Sibling Rivalry Conclusions Cross-References References Competition for Resources Desired by Females Synonyms Definition Introduction Females Compete with Each Other over Resources Males Compete with Each Other for Control over the Resources Females Want The Institution of Resource-Defense Polygyny Females in Polygynous Bonds Can Compete with Each Other Mother´s Use Resources to Improve Their Children´s Reproductive Success Conclusion Cross-References References Competitive Altruism Competitive Mating Competitiveness Competitor Derogation Complete Family Unit Complete Health Completed Suicide Complex Problem Solving Complexity Components of Humor Synonyms Definition Introduction Four Components of Humor Conclusion Cross-References References Composition Comprehensive Sexuality Education Compulsion Computation Computational Neuroscience Computer Metaphor Concealed Estrus Concealed Ovulation Synonyms Definition Introduction Controversies on the Changes in Ovulation Signaling in Human Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References Concealed Ovulation and Multi-male Groups Definition Introduction Emergence of Concealed Ovulation Mating Systems Adaptiveness of Concealed Ovulation Conclusion Cross-References References Concealed Ovulation and Pregnancy Synonyms Definition Introduction Honest Signaling and Fertility Concealed Ovulation in Humans Ovulation May Not Be Entirely Concealed in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Concealing Imitation Concealment Concentration Concept Discrimination Concept Formation Synonyms Definition Introduction Thompson and Oden´s (2000) Framework Conceptual Understanding in Nonhuman Animals Same-Different Concepts Understanding the Relation-Between-Relations Conclusions Cross-References References Concept Learning Conception Conception Risk Conceptual Integration Conceptual Mapping Conceptual Representation Concurrent Mate Retention Tactics Definition Introduction: The Taxonomy of Mate Retention Concurrent Mate Retention Tactics Conclusion Cross-References References Concussion Condemnation Conditional Stimulus Conditional Strategies Condition-Dependent Mating Tactic Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex, Investment and Environment Operational Sex Ratio Parasite Load Mate Value Conclusion Cross-References References Condition-Dependent Variation in Mating Decisions Conditioned Associations Conditioned Emotional Reactions Conditioned Reflex Conditioned Reflexive Response Classically Conditioned Response Conditioned Response Synonyms Definition Introduction Classic Example The Process of Acquisition and Its Role on the Functional Qualities of Classically Conditioned Responses The Discrepancy Between Unconditioned and Conditioned Responses Classical Conditioning and Emotional Functioning Further Conditioning: Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination Cross-References References Conditioned Stimulus Synonyms Definition Introduction The Study of the Gastrointestinal System and Its Role on the Concept of Conditioned Stimulus Facilitating Factors Biologically Prepared Learning and Its Role on Conditioned Stimuli Further Conditioning: Second-Order Conditioning Conclusion Cross-References References Conditioning and Association Synonyms Definition Introduction Respondent Conditioning Operant Conditioning Conclusion Cross-References References Conditions Required for Evolution of Warfare Adaptations Definition Introduction Defining Terms: ``Adaptation´´ and ``Warfare´´ Conditions for the Evolution of Warfare Reproductive Benefits Coalitional Psychology Auxiliary Observations Regarding the Uniqueness of Human Warfare Research Note: The Levels of Selection Problem Conclusion Cross-References References Confidence Confidence Judgments Configurations Conflict Conflict Between Parents and Offspring Synonyms Definition Introduction Parent-Offspring Conflict Theory Factors Influencing the Intensity of POC Prenatal Parent-Offspring Conflict Weaning Conflict Mate Choice Conclusion Cross-References References Conflict Between the Sexes Synonyms Definition Introduction Mating Strategies Mate Preferences Women´s Preferences Men´s Preferences Mate Retention Jealousy Triggers Mate Retention Tactics Conclusion Cross-References References Conflict of Mating Conflict over Parental Investment Conflicts Confluence Model Definitions Introduction Theoretical Approaches Empirical Status Conclusion Cross-References References Conformity Confounding Use of Tools on Physical Tasks Synonyms Definition Introduction Confounds in Trap Tasks Theoretical Accounts Conclusion Cross-References References Confusion Effect Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) Synonyms Definition Introduction Early Work Paradigm Shift Future Efforts Conclusion References Conjugal Dissolution Conjugal Paranoia Conjugality Connection Consanguineous Sexual Relationship Conscientiousness Conscious Experience Consciousness Synonyms Definition Introduction Consciousness: Perspective from Neuroscience Consciousness: Psychological Perspective Consciousness: From the Perspective of Spirituality Measuring Consciousness Consciousness: The Dilemma Conclusion Cross-References References Consequences Consequences of Imbalanced Sex Ratios Consequences of Possessing a Large Brain Consequent Consequentialism Consequentialism and Suffering Synonyms Definition Introduction A Strained Appeal to Divine Ends The Ends of Suffering Reconsidered Conclusion Cross-References References Consolidating Familial Power Synonyms Definition Introduction Kin Selection Reciprocal Altruism Conclusion Cross-References References Consonants Conspecific Killing Conspicuous Consumption Synonyms Definition Introduction Thorstein Veblen Status, Conspicuous Consumption, and Sexual Success Conclusion Cross-References References Conspicuous Consumption (Marketing and Economics) Synonyms Definition Introduction Contemporary Research on Conspicuous Consumption in Consumer Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Conspicuous Leisure Conspicuous Prosociality Conspicuous Reputation Conspicuous Waste Construction Play Consumption Contact Sport Contamination Vulnerability Content Specificity Synonyms Definition Introduction Biological Evidence of Content-Specific Memory Adaptationism Conclusion Cross-References References Contest Assessment Strategies Contest Competition Contests Contests of Aggressiveness Context - Sensitivity Context, Environment, and Learning in Evolutionary Psychology Introduction The Importance of Context in Evolutionary Psychology Evolved Learning Mechanisms Context Effects in Evolutionary Psychology Emotions Cooperation, Altruism, and Group Living Development Mating Men´s Mating Psychology Women´s Mating Psychology The Breadth and Diversity of Context Effects in Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Context, Instrumental Behavior Context-Dependent Self-Conceptualization Contexts Contexts for Men´s Aggression Against Men Synonyms Definition Introduction Men´s Adaptations for Physical Aggression Male-Male Aggression Occurs When There Is Competition for Women Male-Male Aggression Occurs When Status Is at Stake Male-to-Male Aggression Occurs When Men´s Opportunities to Obtain Resources Are Bleak Male-to-Male Aggression Occurs When There Is an Abundance of Women Conclusion Cross-References References Contexts for Men´s Aggression Against Women Synonyms Definition Introduction Contexts for Men´s Physical Aggression Against Women Sexual Jealousy Age of Woman Sexual Rejection Contexts for Men´s Sexual Aggression Against Women Rape Outside of the Context of Intimate Relationships Rapist Types Assessment of Vulnerability of Victims Ejaculate Quality in Rape Age of the Woman Rape in the Context of Intimate Relationships Conclusion Cross-References References Contexts for Women´s Aggression Against Men Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence of Women´s Violence Women´s Use of Coercive Control Women´s Violence as Self-defensive Contrasting Patterns of Sex Differences in Aggression Personality and Psychopathology The Abusive Personality: Influence of Attachment and Borderline Personality Traits Are There Sex Differences in Motivations for IPV? Implications for Treatment and Intervention Conclusion Cross-References References Contexts for Women´s Aggression Against Women Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Aggression Competition in the Context of Securing a Mate Female Intersexual Competition Female Intrasexual Competition Self-Promotion and Ornamentation Competitor Derogation Competition in the Context of Retaining a Mate Variables Influencing Mate Retention Behaviors Jealousy and a Rival´s Characteristics Conclusion Cross-References References Contextual Behavioral Science Contextual Cues Contingencies Contingent Cooperation Contingent Reciprocity Synonyms Definition Introduction Related Concepts Contingent Reciprocity in Other Species The Ontogeny of Contingent Reciprocity in Humans Reasons for the Variability in Contingent Reciprocity in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Continuity Continuous Breeding Contraception Synonyms Definition Introduction History Modern Contraceptives Techniques Barrier Methods Hormonal/Biological Methods Permanent Methods Conclusion Cross-References References Contraceptive Contraceptive Pill Contraceptive Use Contralto Contributions Control Control Education Controlled Attention Controversial Issues in Evolutionary Psychology Controversies Synonyms Definitions Introduction Self-Awareness Metacognition Episodic-Like Memory Imitation and Culture Prosocial Sentiments Causal Reasoning and Tool Use Language Theory of Mind Conclusions Cross-References References Controversies in Evolutionary Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction Review Intrinsic Critiques of Evolutionary Psychology The Santa Barbara School Critiques of the ``Standard Model´´ Massive Modularity on the Chopping Block Individual Differences Are Evolutionarily Significant Race and Population Rapid Genetic and Cultural Variation: Beyond the EEA Radical Critiques of Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Contusion Conventional Form-Meaning Mapping Conventionalization Convergent Evolution of Cognition Convergent Evolution of Dog and Human Social Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Support for Possible Dog-Human Convergent Evolution Challenges and Other Considerations Conclusions Cross-References References Convergent Evolution of Hyena and Primate Social Systems Definition Introduction Convergent Evolution of Social Structure Convergent Evolution of Social Cognitive Abilities Conclusion Cross-References References Convergent Evolution of Intelligence Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Intelligence? How to Measure Intelligence Evolutionary Pressures Favoring Intelligence Food Availability Seasonality and Habitat Heterogeneity Sociality Life History Traits Convergence Across Multiple Cognitive Domains Conclusion Cross-References References Convergent Evolution of Intelligence Between Corvids and Primates Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Advanced Intelligence? Intelligence in Primates Intelligence in Corvids Selection Pressures Leading to Advanced Intelligence in Primates and Corvids Conclusion Cross-References References Convolution Cooperation Cooperation Among Fishes Synonyms Definition Introduction Kin Selection Reciprocity Mutualism Manipulation Conclusion Cross-References References Cooperation Among Nonchimpanzee, Nonhuman Primates Synonyms Definition Introduction Ultimate Mechanisms of Cooperation Kinship Kin Selection and Nepotism Cooperative Breeding and Alloparenting Reciprocity Grooming Food Sharing Coalitions Biological Markets Proximate Mechanisms for Maintaining Cooperation Inequity Aversion Partner Choice Punishment Conclusion Cross-References References Cooperation Among Non-kin Cooperation and Social Cognition Definition Introduction Social Cognition Two Types of Cooperation Social Cognition in Group-Based Cooperation Social Cognition in Strategic Cooperation Conclusion Cross-References References Cooperation in Social Carnivores Synonyms Definition Introduction Extent of Cooperation in Mammalian Carnivores Hunting of Large Game Coalition Formation and Defense of Resources Predator Protection Alloparenting Conclusion Cross-Reference References Cooperation in Social Insects References Cooperation to Solve the Prisoner´s Dilemma Cooperation Varies with Genetic Relatedness Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Challenges Survey Data Observational Data Experimental Data Other Factors Conclusion Cross-References References Cooperation-Defect Cooperative Alliances Cooperative Breeders Cooperative Breeding Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Cooperation Why Delay Dispersal? Why Help? Proximate Mechanisms Conclusion Cross-References References Cooperative Childrearing Cooperative Foraging Synonyms Definition Introduction Mechanisms Driving the Evolution of Cooperative Foraging Kin Selection Direct Reciprocity Indirect Reciprocity Network Reciprocity Group Selection The Evolutionary Benefits of Cooperative Foraging Increased Vigilance and Protection from Danger Increased Information Regarding the Location of Food Sources Increased Ability to Capture Prey Increased Efficacy in Defending Resources Increased Ability to Obtain Depletable Resources Horn´s Principle of Group Foraging The Evolution of Communication and Cooperative Foraging Conclusion Cross-References References Cooperative Grooming Synonyms Definition Introduction Mechanisms and examples of cooperative grooming Conclusion Cross-References References Cooperative Hunting Cooperative Investments Cooperative Returns Co-opted Adaptation Co-opted Spandrel Coping Styles Copulate Copulation Copulatory Intrasexual Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Paternal Assurance Tactics Semen Displacement The Topping-Off Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Copulatory Plugs Synonyms Definition Introduction Taxonomical Variation Paternity Protection Other Functions Conclusion Cross-References References Copulatory Wounding (pt.) Copying Core Design Principles Core Tool Coresidence Co-residence and Early Maternal Perinatal Association Synonyms Definition Introduction The Westermarck Effect Co-residence and Altruism Co-residence Between Other Family Members Early Maternal Perinatal Association Asymmetric Relatives Conclusions Cross-References References Corporal Punishment Correction Correlates Correlates of Fear Synonyms Definition Introduction Neurobiological Correlates of Fear Cognitive Processing in Fear-Related Mental Disorders and Its Maintenance Conclusion Cross-References References Cortical Blindness Cortical Neurons and Conducting Velocity Synonyms Definitions Introduction Cerebral Cortex: Evolution and Development Cortical Neurons: Types and Organization Cerebellar Cortex Conduction Velocity Factors Affecting Conduction Velocity Conduction Velocity: Implications Conclusion Cross-References References Cortisol Affords Immediate Action and Alertness Definition and Synonyms of Cortisol Introduction How Cortisol Is Released Effects on Immediate Alertness Effects on Arousal Effects on Other Systems Conclusion Cross-References References Cortisol Reactivity Cortisol Response Corvids Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Systems Social Learning Cooperation Theory of Mind Conclusion Cross-References References Co-sleeping Synonyms Definition Introduction Exterogestation and Human Altriciality Social Development and Attachment Cultural Practices in Human Parenting Conclusion Cross-References References Cosmetics Synonyms Definition Introduction The Nature of Signaling Conclusion Cross-References References Cosmides & Tooby Cost and Benefit Trade-Off Cost Inflicting Synonyms Definition Costs of Intimate Relationship Development Costs and Benefits of Relationship Defection Cost-Inflicting Mate Retention Individual Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Cost of Same-Sex Friendships Synonyms Definition Introduction Maintenance Costs Conflict, Competition, and Betrayal Conclusion Cross-References References Cost-Benefit Analysis Synonyms Definition Introduction Theory of Cost-Benefit Analysis Application to Evolution Life History Theory and Cost-Benefit Analysis Conclusion Cross-References References Costly Apology Model of Suicidal Behavior Costly Displays Costly Punishment Costly Rewarding and Punishment Costly Signaling Costly Signaling and Altruism Synonyms Definition References Costly Signaling Model of Suicidal Behavior Costly Signaling Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Costly Signaling as Honest Signaling Philanthropy as Costly Signaling Risk Taking and Heroism as Costly Signaling Conspicuous Consumption as Costly Signaling Religious Commitment as Costly Signaling Conclusion Cross-References References Costly Signalling Costs Costs and Benefits of a Large Brain Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of the Mammalian Brain Costs of the Human Brain Benefits of the Human Brain Conclusion Cross-References References Costs and Benefits of Mate Poaching Synonyms Definition Introduction The Relationship Types and Sex Differences Cultural and Environmental Factors Future Directions Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Costs of Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction The Costs of Human Aggression Conclusion Cross-References References Costs of Cooperate Costs of Punishing Synonyms Definition Introduction Costs of Punishing Conclusion Cross-References References Costs of Retaliation Costs of Short-Term Mating for Women Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Costs of Casual Sex Health and Reproductive Costs of Casual Sex Mental Health Costs of Casual Sex Conclusion Cross-References References Counter Strategies Against Infanticide Counteradaptations/Female Counterstrategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Reproductive Strategies Conclusion Cross-References References Counterfactual Mental States Countershading Synonyms Definition Introduction Improving Background Matching Counterbalancing Self-shadows and Disguising 3D Form Evidence for the Camouflage Function of Countershading Other Explanations for Countershading Conclusion Cross-References References Courageous Rescue Courting Courtship Courtship Gift Courtship Orientation Covariance of Partner Phenotypes Covert Aggression Coyotes Creative Expression Creativity Credibility Displays Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolution of Credibility Enhancing Displays Credibility Enhancing Displays and Cultural Group Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Credibility Enhancing Displays Creolization Crime Criminal Criminal Acts and Criminal Behavior Criminal Behavior Criminal Behavior and Evolution Criminal Justice System Criminal Personality Criminal Personality Variables Synonyms Definition Introduction Individual Differences Crime and Personality Conclusion Cross-References References Criminals Are Made Not Born Synonyms Definition Introduction Distal Explanations for Crime Proximal Explanations for the Crime Conclusion Cross-References References Criminology Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Criminology? Current Perspectives of Criminology Classical Theories of Criminology Positivist Perspectives of Criminology Strain Theories of Crime Critical Perspectives of Crime Evolutionary Logic of Criminology Criminological Problems and Evolutionary Principles: The Elusive Cases of Sex and Age Evolutionary Models of Criminology Life History Theory Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory Variations in Criminal Justice Systems Conclusion Cross-References References Crisis in Sociology Definition Introduction The Debate Within Sociology The Need for Darwin Conclusion Cross-References References Critical Period Synonyms Definition Introduction Critical Period and Language Development Life History Theory and Critical Period Conclusion Cross-References References Critical Period of Acquisition Synonyms Definition Introduction Acquisition Versus Learning Definition of Critical Periods Critical Period of Bilingual Acquisition Conclusion Cross-References References Criticisms of Darwin´s Work on Natural Selection Crocodilian Bait Hunting Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Crocodilians Using Hunting Tools Crocodilians Using Lures Cross Sex Friend Cross-Cultural Comparisons Cross-Cultural Comparisons: Evolutionary Paradox of Male Same-Sex Sexual Attraction Cross-Cultural Differences Cross-Cultural Expression Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Culture? Nonhuman and Human Culture How Does Culture Develop? Cross-Cultural Similarities Cross-Cultural Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Cross-Cultural Pattern Synonyms Definitions Introduction Cross-Cultural Patterns in Homicide Conclusion Cross-References References Cross-Cultural Psychology Cross-Cultural Punishment Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-Cultural Studies on Punishment Conclusion Cross-References References Cross-Cultural Research on Grandparental Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Perspectives Cross-Cultural Research Conclusion Cross-References References Cross-Cultural Similarities Synonyms Definition Introduction Assimilation Versus Acculturation Cross-Cultural Similarities Conclusion Cross-References References Cross-Cultural Studies Synonyms Definition Introduction Models of the Ancestral Form of Male Androphilia Sexually Antagonistic Gene Hypothesis Balanced Polymorphism Hypothesis Conclusions Cross-References References Cross-Cultural Universality Synonyms Definition Introduction Cultural Universals Context Matters Cultural Variation Learned Is Not the Opposite of Evolved Conclusion Cross-References References Cross-Cultural Variation Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Culture? Individualistic Versus Collectivistic Cultures Loose Versus Tight Cultures Low-Context Versus High-Context Communication Horizontal Versus Vertical Cultures Culture and Language Conclusion Cross-References References Cross-Cultural Variation in Intimate Partner Violence Cross-Sex Antagonistic Pleiotropy Cross-Sex Friend Cross-Species Comparisons Crowds Crows Crucial Time Crying Synonyms Definition Introduction Functions of Crying Etiology of Crying Conclusions Cross-References References Crying Diversity Crying Versatility Cryptic Female Choice Synonyms Definition Introduction Defining and Demonstrating Cryptic Female Choice Mechanisms Used to Bias Sperm Use by Females Conclusion Cross-References References Cryptic Ovulation Cuckoldry Cuckoldry Risk Synonyms Definition Introduction Paternal Uncertainty Conclusion Cross-References References Cues Cues of Being Watched Cues of Female Estrous References Cues to Body Size Cues to Height Cues to Infidelity Synonyms Definition Introduction Prevalence of Infidelity Linking Infidelity with Parental Investment Theory Motives for Engaging in Infidelity Cues of Infidelity: Intentions Cues of Infidelity: Sexual Excitement and Performance Anxiety Cues of Infidelity: Personality Cues of Infidelity: Attachment Cues of Infidelity: Actual Behaviors Cues of Infidelity: Future Directions Cross-References Conclusion References Cues to Size Cues to Weight Cuisine of the Fittest Cultural and Moral Relativism Synonyms Definition Introduction Moral Relativism Descriptive Relativism Metaethical Relativism Normative Relativism Evolutionary Psychology and Moral Relativism Evolutionary Psychology and Descriptive Relativism Evolutionary Psychology and Metaethical Relativism Evolutionary Psychology and Normative Relativism Conclusion Cross-References References Cultural Cortical Recycling Hypothesis Applied to Money Synonyms Definition Introduction The Main Hypothesis A Seminal Experiment Inter-species Comparison Adapting the Cultural Cortical Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Cultural Determinism Cultural Development Cultural Differences Cultural Differences in Mate Preferences Synonyms Definition Introduction Explanations for Cultural Differences in Mate Preferences Conclusions Cross-References References Cultural Differences in Sexual Socialization Synonyms Definitions Introduction Mating Contexts Mating Cultures Conclusion and Implications Cross-References References Cultural Display Cultural Doctrines Cultural Elements Cultural Evolution Cultural Evolution and Cultural Psychology Cultural Heterogeneity Cultural Homicide Patterns Cultural Inheritance Synonyms Definition Introduction Criteria to Be Fulfilled for a Trait to Be a Part of Cultural Inheritance Cultural Inheritance in Animals Cultural Inheritance in Humans Relevance of Cultural Inheritance to Psychology and Psychiatry Conclusion Cross-References References Cultural Intelligence Hypothesis, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Cultural Intelligence Characteristics Conclusion Cross-References References Cultural Learning Cultural Plurality Cultural Quotient (CQ) Cultural Studies Cultural Transmission Synonyms Definition Introduction Description Conclusion Cross-References References Cultural Universals Synonyms Definition Introduction Cultural Universals Characteristics Conclusion Cross-References References Cultural Variation Synonyms Definition Introduction Functional Aspects of Cultural Variation Cultural Variations and Implications for Research and Practice Conclusion Cross-References References Culturally Variable Culture Culture and Intelligence Culture of Honor Synonyms Definition Introduction Explanations for the Culture of Honor Conclusion Cross-References References Culture of Honor and Individual Differences Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Culture of Honor and Nepotism Synonyms Definition Introduction Key Factors in the Creation of Cultures of Honor US South Other Cultures of Honor Conclusion Cross-References References Culture of Honor and Retaliation Definition Introduction What Is Honor? Threatened Honor Honor and Retaliation Conclusion Cross-References References Culture Subdivision Culture-Gene Coevolution Cunnilingus Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Advantages of Cunnilingus in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Cunnilingus and Fellatio Currency and Constraint Synonyms Definition Introduction Energetic Currencies Beyond Energy and Darwinian Fitness Constraint Assumptions Conclusion Cross-References References Custodial Grandparents Customs Cutting Cyber Harassment Cyber/Internet/Online Harassment Cyberaggression Cyberbullying Synonyms Definition Introduction Definitional Controversy Prevalence Consequences Motives for Perpetration of Cyberbullying Theoretical Explanations of Cyberbullying Behavior Social Learning Theory Evolutionary Explanations Prevention and Intervention Efforts Conclusion Cross-References References Cyberstalking Cycle of Violence Cycle Variation Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolved Ovulatory Cycle Conclusion Cross-References References Cyclical Breeding D Daily Conception Risk Daily Fecundability Danger Dangerous Rescue Dangers of Evolutionary Ethics Synonyms Definition Introduction Hitler and the Misuse of Evolutionary Ethics Racial Differences Promoting Reproduction in Superior Races and Reducing Reproduction in Inferior Races Conclusion Cross-References References Daniel Dennett on Free Will Synonyms Definition Introduction Compatibilism A Free Will Worth Wanting Freedom Evolves Criticism and Responses Conclusion Cross-References References Daniel Dennett: A Review of His Evolutionary Work Synonyms Introduction The Scope of Dennett´s Philosophy of Science Content and Consciousness The Intentional Stance Research Programs A Universal Acid Humor Memes Cross-References References Daniel Nettle Synonyms Definition Introduction Explanations for Personality Variation Natural Selection Selective Neutrality Mutation-Selection Balance, Balancing Selection, and Nettle´s Trade-Offs Origins of Personality and the Big Five Agreeableness Conscientiousness Extraversion Neuroticism Openness to Experience Conclusion Cross-References References Daring Rescue Dark Ages, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Renaissance Origins Reformation and Enlightenment Adaptation Modern Scholarship on the Middle Ages and Late Antiquity Conclusion and uses in other areas References Darwin on Speciation Synonyms Definition Introduction Darwin´s Explanation of Speciation Darwin´s Theory in Modern Context Conclusion Cross-References References Darwin on the Origin of Language Synonyms Definition Introduction Language as a Natural Aptitude The Musical Protolanguage Model Sign Language Sexual Selection in the Evolution of Language Conclusion Cross-References References Darwin´s Beliefs Cross-References References Darwin´s Education Cross-References References Darwin´s Principle of Divergence Darwin´s Struggle for Life References Darwin´s Theory on Language Evolution Darwinian Ethics Darwinian Gastronomy Synonyms Definition Introduction The Antimicrobial Hypothesis Spices as Drugs Alternative Hypothesis to Explain Spice Use Origin of Spice Use Conclusion Cross-References References Darwinian Medicine Synonyms Definition Introduction Basic Principles of Darwinian Medicine The Effect of Evolutionary Environments on Disease Risk Adaptions with Disadvantages Evolutionary Selection Mechanisms Creating Adversities Conclusion Cross-References References Darwinian Medicine and Survival Problems Synonyms Definition Introduction Survival, Life History, and Kin Selection Forms of Survival Constitutive Traits Phenotypic Plasticity Developmental Plasticity Behavior and Kin Selection Psychology, Decision-Making, and Survival Survival and Medicine Implications for Public Health Conclusion Cross-References References Darwinian Psychiatry Synonyms Definition Introduction A Brief History of Darwinian Psychiatry Darwinian Psychiatry´s Explanatory Models Darwinian Psychiatry in Psychiatric Practice and Research Conclusion Cross-References References Darwinism Data Data Analysis Date Rape Dating Synonyms Definition Introduction Adolescents´ Transition into Dating Courtship Rituals and Their Importance in Relationship Development The Modern World of Online Dating Conclusion Cross-References References Daughter Guarding Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Selection Theory Daughter Guarding Hypothesis Current Implications Conclusion Cross-References References Daughter-Guarding Daughters/Females and Mate Selection David Benatar Synonyms Definition Introduction Anti-Natalism The Second Sexism Inconsistencies in Sexual Ethics Nonhuman Animals Affirmative Action Conclusion Cross-References References David Buss Definition Introduction Buss´s Personal Journey to Evolutionary Psychology Evolved Mate Preferences Tactics of Attraction Derogation of Competitors Tactics of Mate Retention Mate Poaching The Emotion of Jealousy Strategic Interference Theory Error Management Theory The Evolution of Aggression and Murder The Evolution of Personality and Individual Differences Authored Books Edited Volumes Teaching and Mentoring PhDs in Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References David Edmonds Synonyms Definitions Introduction David Edmonds Conclusion Cross-References References David F. Bjorklund Definition Introduction Career and Contributions Conclusion Cross-References References David Haig Synonyms Definition Introduction The Kinship Theory for the Evolution of Genomic Imprinting Conflict in the Evolution of Human Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References David Wasserman Definition Introduction Education and Career Books and Edited Volumes Conclusion Cross-References References Day Care Definition Synonyms Introduction Daycare Research: Methodological Difficulties Daycare Research: Consensus Findings Daycare: Lingering Concerns Conclusion Cross-References References Daycare de Clérambault´s Syndrome Death Synonyms Definition Introduction Scientific Aspects of Death Death and Technology Cultural and Historical Perspectives Religion and Death Gender and Death Philosophy of Death Criminology and Death Psychology of Death Evolutionary Psychology of Death Conclusion Cross-References References Death by Suicide Synonyms Definition Introduction The Multifaceted and Heterogenous Phenomenon of Death by Suicide Risk and Protective Factors The Suicidal States of Mind Trauma and Death by Suicide Theoretical Conceptualizations of Death by Suicide Mentalization-Based Therapy Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy Ideation to Action Theories of Suicide Fluid Vulnerability Theory Interpersonal Theory of Death by Suicide Integrated Motivational-Volitional Model of Suicidal Behavior The Three-Step Theory Evolutionary Perspectives on Death by Suicide The Altruistic Hypothesis The Bargaining Hypothesis Pain and Brain Model of Suicide Conclusion Cross-References References Death in Christianity Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Supernatural Beliefs Regarding Death Suicide in Christianity Funerary Rituals Conclusion Cross-References References Death in Islam Synonyms Definition Introduction Suicide in Islam Funerary Rituals Conclusion Cross-References References Death in the Eastern Religions Death of Healthy (vs. Sick) Child Followed by More Grief Synonyms Definition Introduction Grief Tracks Inclusive Fitness and Propagation Potential Accounting for the Costs of Grief Conclusion Cross-References References Deaths from Famine Debating Procreation (With David Benatar) Definition Introduction The Procreation Debate Conclusion Cross-References References Deceased Deceit Deceit and Self-Deception Deception Deception Kinship Psychology Manipulation Deceptive Alarm Calls Introduction The Behavioral Ecology of Deceptive Alarm Communication Mechanisms of Deceptive Alarm Calling References Decision Attributes Decision Making Decision Theory Declarative Communication Declarative Knowledge Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution and Declarative Knowledge Brain-Damaged Patients One-Trial Learning Conclusion Cross-References References Declarative Memory Decline of Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction Intelligence, Communication, and Language Competition Drives Cooperation Cultural Group Selection Self-Domestication: Survival of the Friendliest Aggression and Testosterone Cross-References References Decolonialism Decoloniality Decreased Chance of Predation Decreased Reproductive Success Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence on Offspring Number Conclusion Cross-References References Defection Synonyms Definition Introduction Formalizing Defection Using Game Theory Theories for Why Individuals Would Not Defect: Kinship and Reciprocity The Effect of Defection on the Evolved Psychology of Humans Defection in Large-Scale Societies Conclusion Cross-References References Defector Defectors/Sanctions/Violation of Social Contract Defending Against Attack Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Self-defense Behavioral Defense Physical Defense Conclusion Cross-References References Defending Against Predator Synonyms Definition Introduction Victimization and Predatory Dynamics Victimization and Prey Dynamics Putting It All Together Conclusion Cross-References References Defense Against Attack Synonyms Definition Introduction Violence as Self-Defense Violence as Fear Response Violence as Retaliation Conclusion References Defense Regulation Defense System Deferred Adaptations Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Adaptations in Childhood Deferred Adaptations Plasticity in Developmental Outcomes: Conditional Adaptations Conclusion Cross-References References Degenerate Degree of Relatedness Degrees Celsius Degrees Fahrenheit Deindividuation Synonyms Definition Introduction Deindividuation and Antisocial Behavior Reducing Deindividuation Internet and Deindividuation Conclusion Cross-References References Delayed Discounting Delayed Disengagement Delayed Ejaculation Delayed Reciprocity Delinquent Delusional Disorder - Jealous Type Delusional Jealousy Democratic Party Dendrites Denis Decatanzaro Introduction Overview of Evolutionary Theoretical Research Conclusion Cross-References References Denominalization and Nominalization Depression Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Does Normal Sadness Exist at All? Evolutionary Theories of Depression Social Competition Hypothesis Behavioral Shutdown and the Resource Conservation Hypotheses Analytical Rumination Hypothesis Bargaining Hypothesis Social Risk Hypothesis Infection Prevention: Pathogen Host Defense Hypothesis Sex Differences in Depression Problems with Adaptive Theories of Depression The Problem of Heterogeneity The Problem of Genetic Variation Can Mutation Selection Balancing Explain Why Depression Alleles Are Maintained in the Population? The Future of Evolutionary Psychopathology of Depression Conclusion Cross-References References Depression (Paul Gilbert) Synonyms Definition Introduction Toning Down of Positive Affect Defeat/Loss Submissive Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Depression (Randolph Nesse) Synonyms Definition Introduction Depression (Randolph Neese) Conclusion Cross-References References Depressive Episode Depth Perception Definition Introduction Ocular Depth Cues: Accommodation Binocular Depth Cues: Binocular Disparity Dynamic Monocular Depth Cues: Motion Parallax Static Monocular Depth Cues: Pictorial Depth Cues Unique Static Monocular Cues: Retinal Defocus and Retinal Blur Unique Static Monocular Depth Cues: Retinal Elevation with Respect to the Ground Conclusion Cross-References References Derogation of Attractiveness Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Derogation of Attractiveness? To Whom Does It Happen? Effects Outside of Mating Contexts Conclusion Cross-References References Derogation of Attractiveness Among Women (Intrasexual Rivalry) Definition Introduction Contexts that Elicit Attractiveness Derogation Conclusion Cross-References References Derogation of Promiscuity Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Derogation of Promiscuity? To Whom Does It Happen? Conclusion Cross-References References Derogation of Promiscuity Among Women Definition Introduction The Costs and Benefits of Derogating a Rival´s Promiscuity Conclusion Cross-References References Derogation of Rivals Synonyms Definition Introduction Competition and Derogation Conclusion Cross-References References Descended Larynx Descent Illusion, The Definition Introduction The Descent Illusion Conclusion Cross-References References Descent of the Larynx Descent with Modification Descriptive Relativism Design Features of Language Synonyms Definition Introduction Cultural Transmission Semanticity, Displacement, Arbitrariness, and Discreteness Prevarication Duality of Patterning and Openness Hierarchical Organization Language as Criteria for Responses From Nonhuman to Human Language Conclusion Cross-References References Designation Desire and Arousal Disorders Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Desire Disorders Sexual Arousal Disorders Conclusion Cross-References References Desire to Be Included Among Desirable Women Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence of Women´s Desire to be Physically Attractive Social-Cognitive and Emotional Influences on Women´s Appearance Enhancement Evidence of Women´s Desire to be Perceived as Chaste Attractiveness, Sexual Behavior, and Social Status and Affiliation Conclusion Cross-References References Desires in Mating Despotism Destitute Detecting Infidelity Cross-References References Detecting Romantic Cheating Detestation Developing Infant Development Synonyms Definition Introduction Development: The main puzzles Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Development of Adaptations Definition Introduction Adaptations of Infancy and Childhood Ontogenetic Adaptations Deferred Adaptations Conditional Adaptations What Are Psychological Adaptations Made Of? Infants´ Development of Face Processing Developing Prepared Fears Children as Tool Users Conclusion Cross-References References Development of Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Is Aggression Adaptive? Animal Models of Aggression Development Development of Aggression Through the Life Span Prenatal Factors Early Childhood Childhood Temperament Social Information Processing Parental Influence Aggression in Adolescence Personality Aggression in Adults Conclusion Cross-References References Development of Civilizations Development of Differences Between Males and Females Development of Sex Differences Synonyms Definitions Introduction The Evolution of Sexual Reproduction Proximal Development of Sex Differences Ultimate Development of Sex Differences The Functional Significance of the Magnitude of Sex Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Development of Sex Differences in Brain and Behavior Developmental Correspondence Between Childhood and Romantic Attachment Developmental Milestones Synonyms Definition Introduction The Five Senses: Vision The Five Senses: Audition The Five Senses: Smell and Taste The Five Senses: Haptics Physical Development: Gross Motor Skills Cognitive Development: Piaget´s Four Stages Cognitive Development: Attention and Memory Cognitive Development: Language and Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Developmental Noise Developmental Plasticity Developmental Psychologist Developmental Psychology Developmental Stage Deviant Device Diabetes Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolutionary Relevance of Diabetes Conclusion Cross-References References Diabetes Mellitus Diamond Rings Diane Ruble Introduction Background and Training Research and Theorizing Conclusion Cross-References References Dichogamy Die Reichertsche Theorie Diet Synonyms Definition Introduction The Hunting Hypothesis The Gathering Hypothesis The Scavenging Hypothesis Cooking Food Preferences Conclusion Cross-References References Dietary Dietary Preferences Dietary Shifts Difference Judgements Differences in Viral Infection Different Functions of Memory Synonyms Definition Introduction Encoding Storage Retrieval Conclusion Cross-References References Differential Male Reproductive Success Differential Parental Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Parental Investment Differences in Obligatory Parental Investment Examples of Parental Investment Theory Implications of Differential Parental Investment for Human Sex Differences and Mating Sexual Strategies Risk-Taking Aggression Sexual Conflict Sexual Misperception and Commitment Skepticism Jealousy Sexual Regret Evolution of Nonobligatory Male Parental Investment Offspring Survival Paternity Certainty Conclusion Cross-References References Differential Reproductive Success Definition Introduction Differential Selection and Variance of Fitness Are Devices to Achieve Greater Differential Reproductive Success Conclusion References Differentiation Synonyms Definition Introduction Witkin´s Psychological Differentiation Bowen´s Differentiation of Self Mahler´s Self-Object Differentiation Other Applications of the Concept of Differentiation Conclusion Cross-References References Digit Ratio Synonyms Definitions Introduction Measurement of Digit Ratio Sex differences in Digit Ratios and Their Stability Human Comparative Differences Digit Ratios and Sex Steroids Fetal Testosterone and Estrogen The Ancient Origin of 2D:4D Digit Ratio and Sensitivity to Testosterone Digit Ratios, Target Traits, and Effect Sizes Digit Ratio and Sports Performance Digit Ratio, Aggression, Risky/Criminal Behavior Aggression Risky/Criminal Behavior Personality Sexual Orientation Digit Ratios and Health Sperm Production Heart Disease Cancers Osteoarthritis Smoking and Alcohol Choices Conclusion Cross-References References Digital Age Dignity Diminish Ding-Dong Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Direct Bullying Direct Familiarization Direct Fitness Direct Guarding Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Direct Reciprocity Direct Reciprocity and Group Formation Direct Sexual Coercion Directed Attention Direction of Sounds Directional Odor Directional Smell Synonyms Definition Introduction Is There Directional Smell? Conclusion References Directionally Random Morphological Asymmetries Directory or Catalog of Behavior Disabilities Synonym Definition Introduction Evaluating Disabilities Learning and Social Disabilities Laws Protecting Disabled People Risk Factors for Children with Learning and Social Disabilities Conclusion Cross-References References Discipline Discounting of Future Returns Synonyms Definition Introduction Perceived Value Changes as a Function of Time The Discounting of Future Returns and Evolutionary Psychology The Discounting of Future Returns and Life History Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Discrepancy Discriminative Care Discriminative Grandparental Solicitude Discriminative Parental Solicitude Discursive Reasoning Discussions Disease Disease Avoidance Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Did Behavioral Defense Evolve? Perception and Cognition Emotion and Motivation Behavior Implications for Social Behavior Antisocial Implications Prosocial Implications Culture and Cultural Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Disease Avoidance Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Behavioral Immune System Products of the Behavioral Immune System Open Questions in Pathogen Avoidance Research Conclusion Cross-References References Disease Cues and Immune Response Disguise Disguised Aggression Disgust Synonyms Definition Introduction The Experience and Expression of Disgust The Functional Domains of Disgust Pathogen Disgust Sexual Disgust Moral Disgust Individual Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Disgust and Immunity Disgust Sensitivity Disliked Disorders of Sexual Preference Disorganized Attachment and Reactive Attachment Disorder Definition Introduction Disorganized Attachment Reactive Attachment Disorder Conclusion Cross-References References Disparity Between the Prehistoric Environment and the Current One Dispersal Displaced Reference Definition Introduction Development of Displaced Reference Is Displaced Reference a Linguistic or a Pre-Linguistic Capacity? Socializing Children into Displaced Reference Conclusion Cross-References References Displays Disposable Soma Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction An Example from Kirkwood (1977) Gender Differences in the Trade-Off Between Fertility and Longevity The Effect of Mating Cost and the Abundance of Food Life History Theory and the Disposable Soma Theory Challenges to the Disposable Soma Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Dispositional Theories Disruptive Camouflage Disruptive Coloration Synonyms Definition History and Mechanisms Conclusion Cross-References References Disruptive Pattern Disruptive Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Dissimulation Distinction According to Genealogical Level Distinguishing the Direction of Sounds Synonyms Definition Introduction The Direction of Sound Hearing the Traveling Sound Localization of Sounds Conclusion Cross-References References Distress Calling Distributive Justice Divergent Selection Diversified or Conservative Bet-Hedging Divided Attention Division of Labor Divorce DM Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) Definition Introduction DHA and the Evolution of the Modern Human Brain DHA and Sexual Selection Impact on Animal Behavior Impact on Human Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Doctor Does the Chimpanzee Have Theory of Mind? Definition Introduction What Is a Theory of Mind? Premack and Woodruff´s Experiments Critical Commentary: Past and Present Conclusion Cross-References References Dogs Domain Specificity Domain-Specific Reasoning About Dominance Hierarchies Domestic Violence Domestication Domestication Hypothesis Dominance Dominance and Health Synonyms Definition Introduction Dominance and Health Conclusion Cross-References References Dominance and Territory Synonyms Definition Introduction Examples of Territorial Dominance Conclusion Cross-References References Dominance and Testosterone Synonyms Definition Introduction Dominance and Testosterone Conclusion Cross-References References Dominance and Threat or Use of Force Synonyms Definition Introduction Dominance and Force Conclusion Cross-References References Dominance Hierarchies Dominance Hierarchy Synonyms Definition Introduction How it Works Different Dominance Hierarchy Structures How the Dominance Hierarchical Rank Is Determined How the Hierarchical Rank Influences the Life of an Individual Conclusion Cross-References References Dominance in Humans Synonyms Definition Introduction Dominance in Humans Physical Dominance Prestige Official Hierarchies Sex, Gender, and Status Dominance and Reproductive Success Conclusion Cross-References References Dominance Theory Dominance Theory (Cummins) Definition Introduction Dominance Theory Criticism of Dominance Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Dominance, Testosterone, and Cortisol Synonyms Definition Introduction Cortisol and Dominance The Challenge Hypothesis The Biosocial Model of Status Hormonal Correlates of Competition The Dual-Hormone Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Dominant Dominant Acts Expressed (Buss 1981) Synonyms Definition Introduction Conceptualizing Variation in Dominance The Expression of Dominance Dominance and Personality Cultural Variation in the Expression of Dominance by Males and Females Conclusion Cross-References References Dominant Hemisphere Donation Donations Donner Party Disaster: Scarce Resources and Illness Synonyms Definition Introduction Factors Predicting Mortality Conclusion Cross-References References Donner-Reed Party Dopamine Dorsal Pigmentary Darkening Dorsal Stream, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Subcortical Visual Input to the Dorsal Stream Geniculostriate Visual Pathway Extrageniculostriate Visual Pathway Extrastriate Visual Cortical Area ``Tributaries´´ to the Dorsal Stream Reciprocal Subpathways Between Premotor Cortex and the Posterior Parietal Cortex Dorso-Lateral Pathway Dorso-Dorsal Pathway Function Conclusion Cross-References References Dorsal Visual Pathway Douglas Kenrick Synonyms Definition Introduction Personality Age Preferences Mate Preferences Dynamical, Complex Systems Fundamental Motives Conclusion Cross-References References Downfall of ``Tall Poppies´´ Synonyms Definition Introduction Inferiority Hostility Perceived Unfairness Envy Gain Conclusion Cross-References References Dowry Drama Drug Abuse Drug Addiction Drug Dependence Drug Misuse Drug Sensitization Synonyms Definition Introduction Drug Sensitization in Substance Abusers Conclusion Cross-References References Drugs and Rape on College Campuses Definition Introduction Drug Use and Rape Evolution, Drugs, and Rape Conclusion Cross-References References Dry Nurse Dual Inheritance Dual Inheritance Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction History Cultural Evolution and the Capacity for Culture Culture-Gene Coevolution Cultural-Group Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Dual-Mating Hypothesis Definition Introduction Short-Term or Long-Term Strategies? Trade-Offs Between Strategies Ovulation and the Dual-Mating Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Dual-Mechanism Morphology Dual-Route Model Dunnock Breeding System Duplication Duplicity Duration of Breast Feeding in Ancestral Environments Synonyms Introduction Theoretical Approach Maternal-Offspring Conflict Phylogenetic Context of Human Infancy Breastfeeding and the Weaning Process Threshold Model of Weaning Facultative Model of Weaning Conclusion Cross-References References Duration of Childhood Synonyms Introduction The Four Stages of the Immaturity Period in Human Beings Adaptive Value of the Childhood Stage Adaptive Value of the Juvenile Stage Adaptive Value of Adolescence Sex Differences Conclusion References During Ovulation Synonyms Definition Introduction During Ovulation Conclusion Cross-References References Dyadic Processes Synonyms Definition and Introduction Why Studying Dyadic Processes Matters Statistical Approaches for the Analysis of Dyadic Processes Key Findings of Dyadic Processes Conclusion Cross-References References Dyadic Relationships Versus Group Processes Synonyms Definition Introduction Dyadic Relationships: The Formation and Maintenance of the Pair Bond Conflict in Dyadic Relationships Group Processes and Intergroup Conflict Conclusion Cross-References References Dyads Dysfunctional Dysgenic Concerns Definition Introduction Review Overview Multilevel Selection Actual Dysgenic Consequences Conclusion Cross-References References Dyssocial E E. O. Wilson Synonyms Definition Introduction Sociobiology ``Lord of Ants´´ Biodiversity Island Biogeography Theory Biophilia Conclusion References Early Association Cue to Kinship in Primates Synonyms Definition Introduction Maternal Kin Recognition Paternal Kin Recognition Conclusion Cross-References References Early Attachment Experiences and Romantic Attachment Synonyms Definition Introduction Attachment and Life History Strategies Early Attachment Experiences as the Foundation Hierarchical System of Attachment Internal Working Models (IWMs) Attachment Is Restructured During Middle Childhood Adrenarche as a Developmental Switch Point Emergence of Sex Differences in Attachment The Role of Paternal Caregiving Romantic Attachment in Adolescence and Adulthood Continuity and Change Continued Shifts in Attachment During Adolescence Measurement of Romantic Attachment and IWM Conclusion Cross-References References Early Brain Development in a Child Early Care and Education Early Castration Early Childhood and Adolescence Synonyms Definition Introduction Early Childhood The Juvenile Transition and Adolescence Conclusion Cross-References References Early Definitions of Species Synonyms Definition Introduction Application of the Concept Defining the Species Category Defining Species Taxa Darwin´s Contribution Conclusion Cross-References References Early Homo Early Life Early Male and Female Socialization Early Perspectives on Evolutionary Change Synonyms Definition Introduction Classical Greek Perspectives Early Christian Perspectives Post-Roman Islamic Perspectives The Medieval Period Eighteenth-Century Science Into the Nineteenth Century: Erasmus Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Cross-References References Early Relationship Processes Early Stage of Brain Development at Birth Synonyms Definition Introduction Early Stage of Brain Development at Birth Experience in Brain Development Conclusion References Early Theories of Language Synonyms Definition Introduction Friedrich Max Müller and His Early Theories on the Evolution of Language Bow-Wow Theory Ding-Dong Theory Pooh-Pooh Theory Ta-Ta Theory Yo-He-Ho Theory Charles Darwin´ Work on the Origin of Language Language as a Natural Aptitude The Musical Protolanguage Model Sign Language Sexual Selection in the Evolution of Language Conclusion Cross-References References Ears of Mammals Eating Eating Disorders Synonyms Definition Introduction Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa The Reproductive Suppression Model (RSM) Intrasexual Competition Binge Eating Disorder Conclusion Cross-References References Eating Disorders (EDs) eBullying E-Bullying Echoing Echolalia Synonyms Definition Introduction Clinical Causes Phenomenology Evolutionary Aspects of Vocal Mimicry Neurology of Echolalia Conclusion Cross-References References Ecological Demands Ecological Factors and Rape Synonyms Definition Introduction Proximate Versus Ultimate Causes The Thornhill Theory The Palmer Theory Perpetrator Characteristics Other Factors Conclusion Cross-References References Ecological Influences Synonyms Definition Introduction Life History Theory Life History Theorized Environmental Contingencies Empirical Evidence: Nonhumans Empirical Evidence: Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Ecological Influences on Parent-Offspring Conflict Definition Introduction Life History Theory Ecological Conditions Harshness and Unpredictability Resource Scarcity Dispersal Conclusion Cross-References References Ecological Niche, The Definition Introduction Review Early History The Hutchinsonian Niche Criticisms Revival and Expansion Conclusion Cross-References References Ecological Rationality Ecological Trap Ecological Validity Ecology Synonyms Definition Introduction Cultural Variation in Sociosexuality Disease Threat and Variation in Sociosexuality Conclusion Cross-References References Ecology and Behavior Ecology of Pair-Bond Stability Synonyms Definition Introduction Behavioral Ecology and Pair-Bond Stability Mate Desertion Theory Other Costs and Benefits in Ecological Context Conclusion Cross-References References Ecology of Paternal Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Female-Dominated Care Environmental Factors Proximal Factors Conclusion References Economic Deprivation Economic Hardship Synonyms Definition Introduction Conflict Cooperation Conclusion Cross-References References Economic Resources: Wealth Economically Vulnerable Economists and Evolutionary Psychology Definition Introduction Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929) F.A. Hayek (1899-1992) Contemporary Economists Social Exchange Biological Markets Conclusion Cross-References References Ectothermic Animals EDs Edward Hagen Definition Introduction The Bargaining Model of Depression, Self-Harm, and Suicidal Behavior Research on Psychoactive Drug Use Defense of Evolutionary Psychology Other Research References Edward John Mostyn Bowlby Effect of Birth Control on Women´s Preferences Synonyms Definition Introduction Hormonal Contraceptives and Women´s Mate Preferences Implications of Altered Mate Preferences Conclusion Cross-References References Effect of Status on Social Reasoning (Cummins 1998) Synonyms Definition Introduction Hierarchies, Evolution, and Social Reasoning Hierarchies and Social Reasoning in Humans Evolution of a Neural Architecture for Social Reasoning Conclusion Cross-References References Effect on Attachment Synonyms Definition Introduction Attachment Based on Food or Touch Styles of Attachment Effects of Opportunities for Attachment Conclusion Cross-References References Effective Breeding Populations Effects of Alcohol on Balance Effects of Attachment Quality and Organization Definition Introduction Elaboration of Bowlby´s Notions Empirical Research on the Association Between Attachment Quality and Developmental Outcomes Important Research Questions Regarding the Link Between Variations in Attachment Quality and Subsequent Development The specificity of individual variations in attachment in relation to developmental outcomes and the need for developmental in... Learning conditions as mediators Specific competencies as mediators Factors Moderating the Link Between Attachment Quality and Developmental Outcomes Conclusion Cross-References References Egg Ejection Egg Mimicry Synonyms Definitions Introduction Egg Mimicry in Avian Brood Parasites Conclusion Cross-References References Egg Recognition Egg Rejection Synonyms Definitions Introduction Egg Rejection as a Defence Against Brood Parasitism Conclusion Cross-References References Eggs Ego-Centered Kin Terminology Synonyms Definition In Regard to Kinship Terms As a Visualization Tool Cross-References References Egocentrism Einemsen (German) Einfühlung Ejaculate Ejaculate Adjustment Electronic Aggression Electronic Bullying Elementary Technology Elimination Embodied Language Processing Embryo Emergence of Deontic Reasoning Synonyms Definition Introduction Emergence of Social Norm Reasoning Emergence of Social Contract Reasoning Explanations of Early Emergence Conclusion Cross-References References Emergence of Indicative Reasoning Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Explanations Evolutionary Explanation Conclusion Cross-References References Emergence of Social Reasoning About Hierarchies Synonyms Definition Introduction Hierarchies: Simply Complicated Learning Cues to Dominance Applying Dominance Hierarchies to Real-World Social Groups Applying Hierarchies to the Self Conclusion Cross-References References Emergent Literacy Emergentist Approaches to Language Emesis Gravidarum Emma Darwin Introduction Early Life Marriage to Charles Middle Life Late Life Conclusion Cross-References References Emotion Emotion Detection Emotional Emotional Bond Emotional Closeness Predicted by Relatedness Synonyms Definition Introduction Closeness and Kinship Closeness and Reproductive Interest Conclusion Cross-References References Emotional Communication Emotional Contagion Emotional Disposition Synonyms Definition Introduction Emotional Dispositions and Character Traits Emotional Dispositions and Personality Characteristics Regulation of Altruism by Emotional Disposition Emotional Dispositions in Social and Political Life Conclusions Cross-References References Emotional Distress Emotional Jealousy Definition Emotional Jealousy Cross-References References Emotional Solutions to Free Riding Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Emotional Unfaithfulness Emotions Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Empathic Concern Empathy Empathy in Rats Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Empirical Employer Versus Employee Synonyms Definition References Employment Status Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Background Patterns of Violence Conclusion Cross-References References Emulation Encephalization Encoded Memories Encoding Encoding and Sleep Synonyms Definition Introduction Sleep and Its Role in Encoding and Long-Term Memory Conclusion Cross-References References Enculturation End of Reproductive Ability Endocrine Changes Endocrinology Endogamy/Exogamy Endosymbiosis Energy Balance Energy Consumption Synonyms Definition Introduction Biological Functions of Energy Consumption in Mammals Evolution of Human Brain Energy Consumption The Role of Cerebral Energy Metabolism on Evolutionary Psychological Research Conclusion Cross-References References Engagement Rings Definition Introduction Engagement Rings as Signals Engagement Rings as Signals Within the Relationship Engagement Rings as Signals Outside of the Relationship Marketing and Changing Norms Conclusion Cross-References References Engagement Rings as Modern Commitment Cue Synonyms Definition Introduction Signaling Mate Quality Cost-Benefit Analyses Diamond Engagement Rings The Expense of Engagement Rings Population Sex Ratios Gender Roles Conclusion Cross-References References Enhancing Women´s Competitiveness Synonyms Definition Introduction Women and Competition: Using the Past to Explain the Present Strategies to Enhance Women´s Competitiveness Conclusion Cross-References References Enlarge Shadow of Future Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Models of Cooperation The Shadow of the Future in Nonhuman Animals The Shadow of the Future in Humans Limitations to the Shadow of the Future Conclusion Cross-References References Ensemble Representation Entombment Customs Entomologist Entropy Environment Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness Environmental Environmental Adversities Environmental Aesthetics Environmental Change Hypothesis Environmental Contingencies Environmental Effects Environmental Factors Associated with Marital Harmony Environmental Harshness Synonyms Definition Introduction Extrinsic Threats Versus Intrinsic Threats Harshness in Nonhuman Animals Harshness in Humans Psychological Effects of Harshness in Humans Critical Periods Unpredictability Conclusion Cross-References References Environmental Harshness/Mortality Synonyms Definition Introduction Life History Theory, Mating Strategies, and Pair-Bond Stability Conclusion Cross-References References Environmental Heterogeneity Environmental Influences Synonyms Definition Introduction Energetics Psychosocial Stressors Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals Conclusion Cross-References References Environmental Instability Environmental Risk Synonyms Definition Introduction Environmental Harshness Resource Scarcity Mortality-Morbidity Environmental Unpredictability Conclusion Cross-References References Environmental Scarcity Environmental Stochasticity Environmental Threats and Challenges Environmental Unpredictability Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptation to Environmental Unpredictability Conclusion Cross-References References Environmental Unpredictability and Bet-Hedging Synonyms Definition Introduction Bet-Hedging as Risk Management Examples of Bet-Hedging Conclusion Cross-References References Environmental Variance Environmental Variation Envy Epigamic Display Epigamic Selection Epigamic Traits Epinephrine Synonyms Definition Introduction History of Epinephrine Biochemistry and Physiology of Epinephrine Evolutionary Significance of Epinephrine Epinephrine and Health Significance Conclusion Cross-References References Epiphenomenon Episodic and Semantic Counteraction Episodic Memory Synonyms Definition Introduction Human EM EM in Nonhumans Species Differences in ``When´´ Recollection Versus Familiarity Neurobiological Studies Inform the Integrative Nature of EM Future Directions and the Combination of Cognitive Behavioral and Neurobiological Approaches Conclusion Cross-References References Episodic-Like Memory Epistemic Reasoning Equalitarianism Equality Equity Erasmus Darwin Introduction Science Poetry Erasmus Darwin´s Fall from Prominence Influence on Charles Darwin Cross-References References Erectile Disorder Erectile Dysfunction Eric Kandel Introduction Eric Kandel´s Biography Kandel´s Aplysia Conclusion Cross-References References Erotic Orientation Erotica Erotomania Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Strategies Theory Erotomania Reconsidered in Light of Sexual Strategies Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Error Management Theory Definition Conclusion Cross-References References Error Management Theory: Benefit and Cost Asymmetries Definition Cross-References References Escorting Essential Fatty Acids Essentialism and Speciation Introduction Essentialism Species and Essentialism Nonessentialist Definitions of Species Conclusion Cross-References References Estradiol Estrogen Estrus Ethanol Ethical Intuition Ethical Issues Ethics Ethics of Conception Ethnic Identity Ethnic Prejudice Ethnicity Ethnographic Fieldwork Ethnographic Literature Ethnography Synonyms Definition Introduction Overview Conclusion Cross-References References Ethograms Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Ethograms Analysis of Ethograms Conclusion Cross-References References Ethological Psychiatry Ethologists for the Ethical Treatment of Animals Ethology Etiological Attributes Etiology Synonyms Definition Introduction Classification of Etiology Evolutionary Significance of Etiology Establishing the Etiology Clinical Significance of Etiology Conclusion Cross-References References Etiology of Aggression Etiology of Psychopathology Eugenics Synonyms Definition Introduction Review Ideology Historicity Application Repudiation Eugenics Behind the Natal Barrier Conclusion Cross-References References Euler and Weitzel (1996) Synonyms Definition Introduction Preferential Grandparental Solicitude: Theory Preferential Grandparental Solicitude: Original Data Replications and Generalizations of Original Findings Sex-Chromosome Relatedness Cultural Limitations Effects of Grandparental Investment on Grandchild Development The Grandmother Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Europe Eusociality Synonyms Definition Introduction What Eusociality Is Eusociality: Occurrence Factors Favoring the Evolution of Eusociality: Genetic Factors Factors Favoring the Evolution of Eusociality: Ecological Factors Are Humans Eusocial? Conclusions Cross-References References Euthanasia Evaluation Evaluative Conversation Events Evidence for Modularity Synonyms Definition Introduction Incest Avoidance and Kin Detection Pathogen Avoidance Modularity in Moral Foundations Theory Modularity in the Fundamental Motives Model Conclusion Cross-References References Evidence of Brain Modularity Synonyms Definition Introduction Modularity in the Brain Evidence of Brain Modularity (Functional and Anatomical Connections) Anatomical Brain Networks Functional Brain Networks Functional MRI (fMRI) Electrophysiological Techniques Evolutionary Origins and Selection of Brain Modularity Conclusion Cross-References References Evidence of Intentional Killing Synonyms Definition Introduction Review Reasons for Conflict and Killing Within Groups Reasons for Conflict and Killing Between Groups Conclusion Cross-References References Evoked Culture Evolution Evolution and Guarding Behavior Evolution and Memory Evolution and Self-Awareness Synonyms Definition Introduction Continuity Between Human and Nonhuman Animals Neurophysiology of Consciousness Continuity Between Brains and Other Machines Noise as a Determinant of Consciousness Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution and the Theory of Games Evolution of Adaptations Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution: Change over Time Biological Adaptations Evidence of Psychological Adaptations as Evolved Adaptation Expressions Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Altruism Evolution of Altruistic Cooperation Evolution of Auditory Perception, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Distinguishing the Direction of Sounds The Basilar Membrane Binaural Hearing Reichert-Gaupp Theory Evolution of the Mammalian Ear Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Communication Synonyms Definition Introduction Comparative Study of Signaling Evolution of Honesty Evolution of Cooperation Evolution of Individual Recognition Evolution of Mating Preferences by Sexual Selection Evolution of Communication in Noise Some General Principles for the Evolution of Communication Cross-References References Evolution of Cooperation Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptive Cooperation Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Crime, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Conflict Related to Status and Mating Opportunities Evolution of Morality in Relation to Criminal Behavior Crime and the ``Dark Triad´´ Sexual Selection and Asymmetrical Parental Investment in Relation to Male Violence Infanticide: The Cinderella Syndrome Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Culture Evolution of Desire, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Desires in Human Mating Mate Competition: Attraction and Derogation Conflict Between the Sexes Mate Retention and Mate Ejection Mating Over the Life Span Condition-Dependent Mating Adaptations Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Emotion in Social Context Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolution of Emotions and the Importance of Functions Theories of Constructed Emotion as an Alternative Framework Constructivist Views Generate EvoEmo Hypotheses That Can Be Tested in Nonhuman Animals Emotions Serve Social Functions Social Functionalism Meets Constructivism in the Study of EvoEmo Conclusion References Evolution of Female Resistance Synonyms Definition Introduction Do Females Select Via Resistance for Antagonistic Male Traits? Is There Evidence for Female Resistance in Humans? Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Fighting Assessment Abilities Synonyms Definition Introduction Assessment of Fighting Ability Evidence for Assessment Strategies Evidence for Pure Self-Assessment Evidence for CAM Evidence for Mutual Assessment Assessment of Fighting Ability in Humans Assessment of Resource Value Does Resource Value Influence Human Aggression? Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Free Will Synonyms Definition Introduction Unpredictability and Decisions in Noise Cross-References References Evolution of Genitalia, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Morphology of Human Genitalia The Role of Sexual Selection in Shaping Human Genitalia The Role of Natural Selection in Shaping Human Genitalia Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Hearing and Balance Synonyms Definition Introduction Distinguishing the Direction of Sounds Reichert-Gaupp Theory Evolution of the Mammalian Ear The Auditory System The Outer Ear The Middle Ear The Inner Ear The Cochlea Otolith Balance and Motion Bony and Membranous Labyrinth Semicircular Canals Alcohol and Balance Evolutionary Perspective on the Vestibular System in Mammals Auditory Neurobiology Primary and Secondary Auditory Cortex Mechanosensor Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Homosexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction Natural History of Homosexuality Is Homosexual Behavior a Darwinian Paradox? Biological Models of the Prevalence of Homosexual Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Human Male Homosexuality Evolution of Human Sociality Evolution of Human Sociality, The Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Evolution of Humor, The What Is Humor? Verbal Humor Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Intelligence Evolution of Intelligence, The Definition Introduction Review Evolution of Intelligence: Theories Climatic Selection Variability Selection Ecological Dominance Slow Life History Selection Modular Views of Intelligence A Motivational Theory for the Evolution of Domain-General Mechanisms Research on Animal Intelligence Intelligence and Explicit Problem Solving in Humans Mechanisms Underlying General Intelligence Is Working Memory a Domain-General Mechanism? Decontextualization as a Function of General Intelligence Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Language Evolution of Live Birth in Mammals (140 MYA) Synonyms Definition Introduction Overview Reproductive Anatomy Gestation Period Placentae Genomic Imprinting Lactation Period Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Long-Term Pair-Bonding in Humans Synonyms Definition Introduction Pathways for the Transition to Monogamy in Groups Promiscuity Harems Multilevel Societies Strict Monogamy Hypotheses for the Evolution of Social Monogamy Ecological Hypothesis Protection Hypotheses Provisioning Hypotheses Conflict Hypotheses Comparative Work Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Mammalian Hearing Evolution of Mammalian Vision, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Pre-mammalian Eyes The Nocturnal Bottleneck Seeing in Color The Value of Vision Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Mating Systems Evolution of Memory, The Synonyms Definition HM Areas of the Brain Related to Memory Memory, Learning, and Evolution Memory Systems Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Morality Synonyms Definition Introduction Morality The Sources of Morality Dual Process Model of Morality The Five Moral Intuitions Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Music Evolution of Play Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Play? Defining Play (Is Not So Easy) Evolution of Play in Nonhuman Animals Evolution of Play in Humans The Playful Mind: Implications for Human Well-Being Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Psychological Faculties Evolution of Punishment Synonyms Definition Introduction Theories of the Evolution of Punishment The Evolution of Spanking Evolution of Less Violent Punishment References Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction Cooperation in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism and Punishment Evolution of Religion Evolution of Secondary Sexual Characters Evolution of Self Synonyms Definition Introduction Getting a Grasp on the Self On the Adaptive Functionality of the Self Behavioral Evidence and Cognitive Evidence from Nonhuman Species Linking Evolution to the Self For How Long Has the Human Species Possessed a Self? Evidence Linking Brains, Genes, and the Self Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Selfishness and Altruism Evolution of Sight in Mammals Evolution of Signaling and Responding Evolution of Social Emotions Evolution of Teaching Synonyms Definition Introduction Teaching and Cumulative Culture Key Characteristics of Teaching Importance of Relatedness Behavioral Coordination Adaptive Behaviors in Response to Learning Studies on Learning in Other Species Procedural and Declarative Knowledge Controversy Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of the Brain, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Comparative Studies Brain Size Brain Component Size Functional Significance of Changes in the Brain or Brain Component Size Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of the Human Brain Evolution of Tool Use Synonyms Definition Introduction Comparative Tool Use in Other Species The Hominin Fossil Record and Tool Use The Australopithecines Early Homo Later Homo Modern Humans Tool Use and Reorganization of the Brain Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution of Virulence Synonyms Introduction Virulence and Trade-offs Conclusion Cross-References References Evolution Theory Evolution´s Empress: Darwinian Perspectives on the Nature of Women Definition Introduction Integrating Evolutionary and Feminist Perspectives Sex Roles, Aggression, Competition, and Cooperation Mothering and Parenting Health and Reproduction Mating and Communication New Disciplinary Frontiers Conclusion Cross-References Evolutionary Aesthetics Evolutionary Aggression Evolutionary Altruism Evolutionary Arms Race Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolutionary Arms Race and Genitalia Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Behavioral Psychology Evolutionary Biologist Evolutionary Biology and Feminism Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary By-Products Synonyms Definition Introduction A Few Evolutionary Processes and a Range of Constraints on the Evolution of Adaptations Five Main Evolutionary Processes Constraints Five Main Products of Evolutionary Processes and Constraints: The Key Role of Causal History Adaptation Spandrel Two Main Types of Exaptation Residue of Noise Testing the Hypotheses That a Trait Is an Adaptation or an Evolutionary By-Product Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Evolutionary Change Synonyms Definition Introduction Heritability Genetics Epigenetics Variation Mutation Gene Flow/Migration Sexual Recombination Mechanisms That Drive Evolution Natural Selection Convergent Evolution: Strong Evidence of Natural Selection Selection at What Level? Genetic Drift Genetic Hitchhiking (``Genetic Draft´´) Interpreting Evolutionary Evidence: Notes of Caution Evolutionary ``Spandrels´´ and Exaptations An Incomplete, Mysterious Fossil Record Evolutionary Change over Life´s History A History of Life, Skewed Toward Vertebrates Human Evolution: Early Fossils, Close Relatives, and Genetic Traces The Evolution of Psychological Traits Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Clinical Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction Defining Psychopathology: The Harmful Dysfunction Analysis Life History Approach to Taxonomy Evolutionary Medicine: Why Does Psychopathology Exist? Problems Within Evolutionary Clinical Psychology The Problem of Explaining Diseases as Evolved Traits The Problem of Genetic Variation The Problem of Evolutionary Mismatch Specific Disorders Anxiety Generalized Anxiety Disorder Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia Social Anxiety Disorder Specific Phobias Depression Bipolar Disorder Eating Disorders Personality Disorders Schizophrenia Sexual Dysfunctions Substance Abuse and Dependency Evolutionary Informed Psychological Treatments Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Cognitive Psychology Evolutionary Contradiction Evolutionary Criminology Synonyms Definition Introduction Basic Principles Classic Criminology Issues and Evolutionary Propositions Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Cultural Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction Culture: Definition and Concepts Cultural Evolution Concept and Relevance Culture Variation Pathways of Culture Variation Evoked Culture Food Sharing and Food Variance Pathogen Load and Attractiveness Transmitted or Epidemiological Culture Cultural Transmission Pathways Mechanism of Transmission Memes Evolutionary Psychology Emerging Discipline The Standard Social Science Model Basic Principles of Evolutionary Psychology Scope Evolutionary Psychology Provides the Needed Causal and Explanatory Bridge from Evolutionary Theory to Manifest Behavior The Method of Evolutionary Psychology Cultural Universals Conclusion References Evolutionary Forensic Evolutionary Forensic Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction ``Law´´ and ``Crime´´ as Reflecting Moral Impulses Adaptive Criminal Calibration Personality and Crime: A Focus on Individual Differences Psychopathy: A Forensic-Revealed Adaptation? Homicide Homicide Committed by Men Homicide Committed by Women Types of Homicide Is Homicide an Instance of Adaptation? Sexual Crimes Sexual Harassment Rape Intimate Partner Violence Prostitution Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Foundations of the Attachment System and Its Functions Definition Introduction Evolutionary and Ethological Foundations of Attachment Theory Development of Behavioral Systems Predictable Outcomes and Functional Consequences of Behavioral Systems The Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness and Development of Behavioral Systems Bird Imprinting and Attachment Behavior in Other Primates Nature vs. Nurture and Behavioral Systems A Control Systems Approach to Behavior Systems Attachment Theory and Current Evolutionary Perspectives Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Game Theory Evolutionary Hierarchy of Needs Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolved Needs The Sequence of Needs Within the Hierarchy Individual Differences and Changes in Focus over the Lifespan What to Do with Self-Actualization? Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Medicine Synonyms Definition Introduction History Fundamentals of Evolutionary Medicine Proximate vs Ultimate Causes and Host Defenses vs Pathogen Offences Sexual Selection and Reproductive Fitness Constraints, Trade-Offs, and Life History Theory Multiple Levels of Selection Coevolution Evolutionary Mismatch/Adaptations to Novel Environments Plasticity and Cultural Practices Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Mismatch Evolutionary Musicology Synonyms Definition Introduction On the Origins of Evolutionary Musicology Current Competing Hypotheses for the Adaptive Significance of Musilanguage Music and Social Bonding in Non-human Primates Music and Social Bonding in Human Child Development Music and Social Bonding in Human Social Interactions Direct and Derived Functions of Human Music Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Paradox: Adoption Synonyms Definition Introduction Benefits of Adoption Costs of Adoption Is Adoption a Form of Altruism? Forced Perceptions of Genetic Relatedness Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Paradox: Women Choosing Not to Have Children Synonyms Definition Introduction Reproductive Fitness Operational Sex Ratio Childcare Conditions Other Reasons Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Personality Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction Personality as an Instance of Developmental Adaptation Life History Theory Psychometrics of Personality Measures The Big Five Model The HEXACO Model Genes and Personality Personality and Prosocial Behavior Personality and Antisocial Behavior Sex Differences in Personality Personality Throughout the Life Span Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Perspective, The Synonyms Definition Introduction References Evolutionary Perspectives on Rape Synonyms Definition Introduction The Five Types of Rapists The Specialized Rapist The Disadvantaged Male The Opportunistic Rapist Partner Rapists The High-Mating-Effort Rapist Effects on Females Defense Mechanisms Emotional and Societal Effects Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Perspectives on Religion Synonyms Definition How Did Religion Evolve? Why Did Religion Evolve? Religion as an Adaptation Religion as a By-product Cross-References References Evolutionary Political Psychology Evolutionary Precursor to Language and Music Evolutionary Pressure on Meat Eating Synonyms Definition Introduction The First Meat Eating Primates Later Hominids The Expensive Organ Hypothesis Culture and Cooking The Effects on Fertility A History of Continuous Change Drifting Away from Carnivory Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Psychiatry Synonyms Definition Introduction Functional Capacities and Mental Health Individual Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Psychologist Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary Psychology and Culture Evolutionary Psychology and Intimate Partner Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Conflict Theory Jealousy and Sexual Control Other Adaptive Problems and IPV Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Psychology of Crime Evolutionary Psychology Research Evolutionary Psychology, The Handbook of Synonyms Definition Introduction What the Handbook Showcases Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Psychology´s Role in Behavioral Science Evolutionary Psychopathology Evolutionary Puzzle of Homosexuality Evolutionary Social Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction Recurrent Concepts False Positives and False Negatives Sexual Selection Shaping Human Social Nature Person Perception First Impressions Mechanisms for Avoiding Harm in Person Perception Mechanisms for Avoiding Disease in Person Perception Perceptions of Romantic Intentions Important Considerations Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Sociology Evolutionary Stable Strategies Evolutionary Standards of Female Attractiveness Synonyms Definition Introduction Neoteny or Youthfulness Symmetry or the Lack of Fluctuating Asymmetries Averageness Skin Texture and Coloration Hormone Markers Body Proportions Olfaction Motion and Voice Multiple Cues or Redundant Signaling? Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Theory Evolutionary Theory and the Causes of War Synonyms Definition Introduction Subsistence Resources Sex and Reproduction Status, Honor, and Prestige Revenge Power and the Security Dilemma Ideas and Identities Conclusion Cross-References References Evolutionary Theory of Aging Evolutionary Theory of Homosexuality Evolutionary Thinking in Sociology Evolutionary Trap Evolution-Based Theories Evolutive Competitions of Civilizations Evolved Food Preferences Evolved Functions of Warfare Evolved Infant Feeding Behaviors in Humans Evolved Moral Foundations Synonyms Definition Introduction Moral Foundations Theory Moral Foundations Moral Foundations Criteria Conclusion Cross-References References Evolved Moral Intuitionism Evolved Navigation Theory Definition Introduction Navigation and Cognitive Adapation Example: Falling Conclusion Cross-References References Evolved Physiological Reactions Synonyms Definition Introduction Physiological Reactions to Stress and Reward The Endocrine System The Cardiovascular System The Pupillary System The Electrodermal System The Respiratory System The Motor System Conclusion References Evolved Psychology Evolved Psychology of Warfare Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Perspectives on Warfare Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Evolving Environments Examples of Group Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Group Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Exaptation Exclusive Pair Mating Exclusivity and Pair-Bonding Among Non-humans Definition Introduction Evolutionary Explanations of Pair Bonding Proximate Causes of Pair Bonding Vasopressin and Pair Bonding in Voles Oxytocin and Pair Bonding in Voles Conclusion Cross-References References Executive Attention Executive Control Executive Functioning Synonyms Definition Introduction Organizational EFs Working Memory Planning Set-Shifting Regulatory EFs Inhibitory Control Self-Monitoring EF and Neural Correlates EF and Psychopathology EF Training Conclusion Cross-References References Exercise Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptations to Exercise: Heat Exchange and Bipedalism Physical Appearance and Mating Exercise in Modern Society Conclusion Cross-References References Exotic-Becomes-Erotic Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence that Genes Are Correlated with Sexual Orientation Gender Conformity/Nonconformity Is Also Correlated with Sexual Orientation Gender Conformity/Nonconformity and Feeling Different How Does Exotic Become Erotic? An Empirical Test of the Exotic-Becomes-Erotic Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Expanding Circle, The Introduction Definitions Meaning Theories Related to Expanding Circle Sigmund Freud´s Psychoanalytic Theory Jean Piaget´s Cognitive Development Theory Daniel J. Levinson´s Theory of Positive Adult Development Implications to Expand the Social Circle Connect With Connectors Meet New People Constantly Establish Yourself as a Giver of Value Commit to a Local Community Reach Out to People on a Regular Basis Know the Kind of Friends You Want in Advance Conclusion Cross-References References Expanding Lifespan Experiment Experimental Analysis of Behavior Experimental Economics Explicit Memory Exploitation of Psychological Mechanisms Synonyms Definition Introduction Food and Other Products Why Sex Sells Conclusion Cross-References References Exploitative Exploratory Play Exponential Growth Expression of Altruism Expressions of Emotions Theory Expressive Theory Extended Family Extended Family Relations Extended Kin Role Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Extended Kin Role Conclusion Cross-References References Extended Phenotype, The Definition Introduction The Gene´s Eye View of Evolution The Extended Phenotype Criticisms Conclusion Cross-References References Extended Phenotypic Effect Extended Postmenopausal Lifespan Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Extending the Length of Life External External Ear Externalities Synonyms Definition Introduction Failing Markets and Policy Responses Market Failure Government Responses to Externalities Coasean Bargaining Externalities and Cooperation Conclusion Connections and Extensions Cross-References References Extinction Synonyms Definition Introduction Contemporary Definition of the Term Extinction Functional Qualities of the Extinction as a Behavioral Process A Theoretical Conceptualization of the Term ``Behavioral Extinction´´ The Role of Prediction Error in the Behavioral Process of Extinction Conclusion Cross-References References Extinction of Neanderthals Synonyms Definition Introduction Neanderthal Morphology Climate Change Competition with Modern Humans Assimilation Conclusion References Extinguished Response Extra Pair Copulation Extractive Foraging Hypothesis, The (Parker and Gibson 1997, 2015) Synonyms Definition Introduction A Taxonomy of Object Manipulation and Tool Use Object Manipulation Feeding Ecology Tool Use Taxonomic Distribution Brain Evolution Reevaluating the Extractive Foraging Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Extra-Dyadic Interaction Extradyadic Involvement Extra-Dyadic Relationships Extradyadic Sex Extra-Dyadic Sex Extramarital Affair Extramarital Sex Extrapair Copulation Extra-Pair Copulations Extra-Pair Copulations (EPCs) Extra-Pair Sex Extrastriate Visual Cortex Extraversion Extreme Environments Extrinsic Environmental Hazards Extrinsic Morbidity-Mortality Extrinsic Mortality Synonyms Definition Introduction Extrinsic Mortality and Life History Strategies Conclusion Cross-References References Extrinsic Risk Extrinsic, Age-Independent Environmental Mortality Eye Contact with Adults Versus Babies Synonyms Definition Introduction Eye Contact in Babies Eye Contact in Adults Conclusion Cross-References References Eye, The Synonyms Definition Introduction What is An Eye? The Diversity of Eyes The Vertebrate Eye Vertebrate Eyes: A Case Study in Evolutionary Innovation Conclusion Cross-References References Eyeball Eyespots Synonyms Definition Introduction The Divertive (Deflective) Effect of Eyespots The Intimidating Effect of Eyespots Conclusion Cross-References References F Fa´afafine Definition Introduction Fa´afafine Gender, Sexuality & Social Acceptance Conclusion Cross-References References Face Face and Object Recognition Synonyms Definition Introduction The Visual Processing System The Computational Challenge Object Recognition Goal-Directed Behavior Shapes Visual Object Recognition Face Recognition Configural Information Holistic Processing Development of Visual Recognition Object Recognition Face Recognition Conclusion Cross-References References Face Blindness Face Memory Face Perception Face Preferences Face Processing Face Recall Synonyms Definition Introduction Recall Versus Recognition Face and Memory Neural Systems Face Recall Facilitates Group Cohesion Conclusion Cross-References References Face Recognition Face-Blindness Facial Aesthetics Facial Apperception Facial Attractiveness Synonyms Definition Introduction An Evolutionary Approach Attractive Face Traits Masculinity, Femininity, and Attractiveness Variation in Perceived Attractiveness Conclusion Cross-References References Facial Beauty Facial Behavior Facial Cues Facial Disfigurement Synonyms Definition Introduction Facial Disfigurement and Disease Avoidance Facial Disfigurement and Attraction Conclusion Cross-References References Facial Expressions Synonyms Definition Introduction A Brief History Basic Emotion Theories Contrary Evidence Contemporary Research Agenda Conclusion Cross-References References Facial Resemblance Facial Resemblance and Kinship Detection by Strangers Synonyms Definitions Introduction Humans Prefer Similar Others Perception and Use of Facial Similarity in Others Summary References Facial Width to Height Ratio and Dominance Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Dimorphism in Craniofacial Shape and FHWR Sexual Selection and FWHR as an Intra-sexual Cue of Dominance Evidence from Behavioral Studies that FWHR Is an Intra-sexual Cue of Dominance Conclusion Cross-References References Factors Associated with Suicide Synonyms Definition Introduction Reduced Ability to Contribute to One´s Fitness, and Perceived Burdensomeness to Kin Parent-Offspring Conflict Suicide as a By-Product of Bargaining Comparing Theories of Factors Leading to Suicide Suicide Terrorism Conclusion Cross-References References Factors That Influence Bullying Synonyms Definitions Introduction: Bullying and Ecological Systems Age Sex Personality Parenting Peers School Community Life Changes Conclusions Cross-References References Factual Information Fairness Fairness in Corvids Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence For Fairness Conclusion Cross-References References Fairness in Nonhuman Primates Fairness in Primates Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence for Fairness Conclusion Cross-References References Fair-Weather Friends Versus True Friends Synonyms Definition Introduction Three Puzzles of Friendship Friends Turn a Blind Eye to Past Inequity Friends Cooperate Even When the Probability of Future Interaction Is Low People have Difficulty Distinguishing True Friends from Fair-Weather Friends Possible Solutions to the Puzzles of Friendship Irreplaceability Start-up Costs and the Raise-the-Stakes Commitment Signals Testing the Strength of a Bond Conclusion References Fair-Weather Friends: Free-Riders Faith Faking Orgasm Fall of ``Tall Poppies´´ False Beliefs Synonyms Definition Introduction When Does False-Belief Understanding Emerge? Spontaneous-Response Tasks Different Spontaneous Responses Different False Beliefs Implanting False Beliefs Different Linguistic Demands Elicited-Intervention Tasks Two-system view One-system view Predictions of the One-System View Conclusion Cross-References References False Negatives Cross-References References False Perceptions False Positives Cross-References References False-Belief Test, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Sally-Anne Test The False-Belief Test in Comparative Psychology Contemporary Resistance to the False-Belief Test Conclusion Cross-References References Falsifiability Synonyms Definition Conclusion Cross-References References Familial Disease Familial Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction Parent-Offspring Violence Step-Parents Biologically Related Parents Sibling Violence Partner Violence Conclusion Cross-References References Familiarity-Based Kin Recognition Familiarization Familicide Family Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Perspectives Humans as Cooperative Breeders Kin Conflict Role of Family Structure on Pubertal Timing Conclusion Cross-References References Family Constellation Family Literacy Family of Orientation Family Order Family Order Effects Family Planning Family Relations Family Relationships Family Roles Family Size Family Violence Fantasy Fantasy Aggression Fantasy Violence Fare Fast and Slow Strategies Fast Life-History Strategy Fast Versus Slow Strategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Development Mating Parenting Psychological Differences Health Conclusion Cross-References References Fat Fat Man, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Fat Man Conclusion Cross-References References Fatality Father Absence Definition Introduction Reproductive Development of Offspring Behavioral Ecology Approaches to Reproductive Development in Offspring Mortality and Morbidity Outcomes in Offspring Conclusion Cross-References References Father Absence and Stress Reactivity Synonyms Definition Introduction The Effect of Father Absence on the Stress Response System The Effect of Father Absence on Reproductive Outcomes Conclusion Cross-References References Father of American Anthropology Father Presence Father Responsibility Father´s Father Versus Mother´s Mother Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Father-Absence and Stepfather Presence Synonyms Definition Introduction Father Absence Father Absence and Stepfather Presence Conclusion Cross-References References Fatherhood Fatherlessness FBO Fear Fear Affords Protection Definition Darwin on Fear Fear as an Evolved Emotional System Sex Differences in Fear Behavior Malfunctions of The Fear System Fear and Intergroup Prejudice Fear in Art and Literature Conclusion Cross-References References Fear of Cuckoldry Fear of Strangers Fear of Weight Gain Fears Synonyms Definition Introduction Conditioning Theory of Fear Acquisition The Three-Pathway Model The Nonassociative Pathway Conclusion Cross-References References Fears and Phobias Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Accounts Acquisition of Phobias Recent Evolutionary Developments The Special Case of Blood Injury Injection Phobia Treatment Conclusion Cross-References References Febrile Fecundity Federal Public Archives Federal Public Documents Federal Records Feeding Synonyms Definition Introduction Bento Boxes: A Contemporary Example of Enculturation Through Food A Biocultural View of Feeding and Human Life History Evidence from the Fossil Record Conclusion Cross-References References Feeding Offspring Feeling Sick Feelings of Excitement and Brotherhood Synonyms Definition Introduction Within-Group Coalitions Between-Group Coalitions Conclusion Cross-References References Fellatio Synonyms Definition Introduction Fellatio and Evolution Fellatio and Religion Fellatio, Group Differences, and Life History Strategy Future Research Cross-References References Fellowships Female Age as a Predictor of Men´s Aggression Against Women Synonyms Definition Introduction Intimate Partner Violence and Homicide Stalking Rape Conclusion Cross-References References Female Choice Female Choice and Sexual Conflict Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Runaway Selection or the Sexy Sons Hypothesis The Handicap Principle and Honest Advertisements Is Female Resistance a Form of Female Choice? Conclusion Cross-References References Female Choice for Men High in SDO Synonyms Definition Introduction Female Choice for Men High in Social Dominance Conclusion References Female Choice Polygyny Female Coalitions Female Copulatory Orgasm Synonyms Definition Introduction Sperm Retention Multiple Orgasms Sedative Properties of Orgasm Extra-Pair Copulations Conclusion Cross-References References Female Counter-Adaptations to Rape Synonyms Definition Introduction Costs of Rape Is Rape Evolutionary? Animal Adaptations to Rape Counter-Adaption Rape Behavior The Bodyguard Hypothesis (Wilson and Mesnick 1997) Hormonal Influences on Female Counter-Adaptations to Rape Risk Avoidance Over the Menstrual Cycle Increased Strength Avoidance of Potentially Threatening Males Evaluation of Potential for Coercion Outgroup Evaluation Directions for Future Research Are Avoidance Behaviors Specific to Rape, or Risk More Generally? Conclusion Cross-References References Female Deception References Female Extra-Pair Copulation Female Filtering Female Gangs Female Homosexuality and Bisexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Female Hypergamy Female Infidelity Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Female Intrasexual Aggression Female Intrasexual Competition Female Intra-sexual Competition for Resources and Mates Female Jealousy Female Manipulation of Men Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Female Mate Choice Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Hormones and Preferences Mating Context and Relationship Status Sexual Openness Living Conditions and Country Characteristics Conclusion Cross-References References Female Mate Choice (Intersexual Selection) Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Strategies Theory Long-Term Relationship Preferences Environmental Influence on Females´ Mate Choice Menstrual Cycle Conclusion Cross-References References Female Mate Interests Female Mating Counter-adaptations Female Mating Strategies Female Mimics Synonyms Definition Introduction Alternative Mating Strategies Permanent Versus Temporary Female Impersonation Other Contexts Conclusion Cross-References References Female Orgasm Female Orgasm and In-Pair Copulation Introduction Female Orgasm and Conception Pair-Bonding Sire Choice Critiques of Adaptive Perspectives By-product Hypothesis Limitations of Evolutionary Evidence How Women Achieve Orgasm Metascientific Critiques Conclusion References Female Orgasmic Disorder Female Partner Preferences Female Reproductive Variance Synonyms Definition Introduction Female Reproductive Variance Conclusion Cross-References References Female Same-Sex Alliances Female Same-Sex Friendships Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder Female Sexual Orientation Female Sneak Copulation Synonyms Definition Introduction The Lay of the Land Female Multiple Mating (FMM) Extra-Pair Copulation and FSC Primate Tactical Deception and FSC Hierarchies and Defiant FSC FSC in Humans: ``Woman Beware Woman´´ Conclusion Cross-References References Female Strategies Female´s Mate Retention Tactics Female´s Romantic Partner Maintenance Female-Biased Postcopulatory Sexual Selection Female-Female Female-Female Aggression Female-Female Alliances Synonyms Definition Introduction Benefits of Female-Female Alliances Costs of Female-Female Alliances With Whom Do Females Form Alliances Conclusion Cross-References References Female-Female Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Female Aggression Competition for Mates Competition Between Mothers Cooperation and Competition Conclusion Cross-References References Female-Female Competition Female-Female Friendships Female-Female Strategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Competition for Limited Resources and Mates Types of Aggression Used by Women in Competition How Women Compete for Mates Issues to Address in Future Work Conclusion Cross-References References Femaleness Female-Perpetrated Violence Females as the Spoils of War Females Remain with Natal Group Synonyms Definition Introduction The Costs of Dispersal and Benefits of Philopatry Conclusion Cross-References References Females´ Mate Maintenance Tactics Females´ Mating Strategies Femicide Femininity Feminism Synonyms Definition Introduction Women´s Oppression Origin of ``Feminism´´ Major Traditions of Feminism: Liberal Feminism, Marxist Feminism, Radical Feminism The Waves of Feminism First-Wave Feminism: Suffrage Second-Wave Feminism: Sisterhood and the Personal Is Political Third-Wave Feminism: Popular Culture and Personal Choice Fourth-Wave Feminism: Intersectionality and Social Media Conclusion Cross-References References Feminist Waves Fermentation Fertile Window Fertility Synonyms Definition Introduction Basic Fertility Concepts Fertility and Economics Linking the Environment to Fertility Cross-References References Fetal Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Fetal Malformation Fetal Programming Fetus Development Synonyms Definition Introduction Pre-embryonic Development Embryonic Development The Placenta Fetal Development Birth Conclusion Cross-References References Feuding Fever Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptive Value Antipyretics Conclusion Cross-References References Fiction Synonyms Introduction Definition of Fiction Concept of Fiction Function of Fiction Elements of Fiction Genres of Fiction Other Types of Fiction Formats of Fiction Difference Between Imagination and Fantasy Impact of Fiction on Society Impact of Fiction on Science Related Genres Best Sci-Fi Movies Prominent Authors of Fiction Conclusion Cross-References References Fictive Kin Fictive Kinship Fidelity Field of Behavioral Ecology, The Definition Introduction Proximate Versus Ultimate Causation Key Individuals Adaptive Behaviors Conclusion Cross-References References Field of Comparative Psychology, The Synonyms Definition Introduction History Key Concepts Methodology Conclusion: The Future of Comparative Psychology Cross-References References Suggestions for Additional Reading Field of Linguistics, The Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Language? Design Features of Language Levels of Language Phonetics and Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Tools, Methodologies, and Subfields Tools and Methodologies Conclusions Cross-References References Field Research Synonyms Definition Introduction Goals of Field Sampling Sampling Methods Sources of Error Prominent Field Researchers Cross-References References Fieldwork Fighting Fighting Ability Fighting Ability Assessment Fighting Assessment Synonyms Definition Introduction Recalibrational Theory of Anger Physical Armaments Facial Morphology Threat Potential May Not Directly Relate to Formidability Facial Width-to-Height Ratio (fWHR) Future Directions Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Fighting Sport Fight-or-Flight Filial Imprinting Filial Infanticide in Humans and Other Primates Synonyms Definition Introduction Inclusive Fitness Filial Infanticide Inopportune Birth of Offspring Lack of Childcare/Presence of Other Offspring Economic/Resource Stress Parental Perception of Fitness Empathy and Altruism Discussion Conclusion Cross-References References Filicide Synonyms Definition Introduction Disaggregating Filicide to Identify Patterns in Characteristic Traits Disaggregating Genetic Parents and Stepparents as Perpetrators Disaggregating Maternal and Paternal Perpetrators Disaggregating Perpetrators with Psychopathology Criticism against Evolutionary Psychological Perspectives on Filicide Conclusion Cross-References References Financial and Hierarchy Maintenance Definition Introduction Heritable Wealth Conclusion Cross-References References Financial Distress Financial Pressure Financial Prospects Finger Length First ``Period´´ First Coitus First Intercourse First Intercourse Experience First Language Acquisition First Menstruation First Order Relational Reasoning First Sexual Behavior Fish, Amphibian, and Reptile Tool Use Synonyms Definition Introduction A Historical Perspective Tool Use in Fish Tool Use in Reptiles Tool Use in Amphibians Conclusion Cross-References References Fisher Process Fisher´s Reproductive Value Definition Conclusion Cross-References References Fisherian Process Fisherian Runaway Fisherian Runaway Process Fisherian Runaway Selection Synonyms Definition Darwin on Sexual Selection Fisher on Runaway Selection Runaway Selection After Fisher Sexual Selection and Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Fitness Fitness Benefits of Costly Signalling Synonyms Definition Introduction Maintaining Signal Integrity Signalling in Humans Female Signalling Male Signalling Summary References Fitness Benefits of Mate Guarding for Males Definitions Introduction Fitness Benefits Conclusion References Fitness Effect Fitness-Related Goals Fitness-Relevant Five-Factor Model Synonyms Definition Introduction The Big Five Factors and Specific Traits for the Most Common Models Which Model Is Best? Conclusion Cross-References References Fixed Action Patterns Synonyms Definition Introduction Fixed action patterns in nesting gray geese Variance Versus Invariance: Arguments Against FAP/MAP Conclusion Cross-References References Fixed Behavior Patterns Fixed-Interval Schedule Fixed-Ratio Schedule Flashy Consumption Flesh Eating Flexibility Flintknapping Flirting Flocking Fluctuating Asymmetry Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Fluent Aphasia Fluid Carrying Tools Fluid Transportation Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence from the Wild Evidence from Captivity Great Apes Monkeys Conclusion Cross-References References Fluidity in Self Perception and Expression Flying fMRI Synonyms Definitions Introduction Principles of fMRI Advantages of fMRI Limitations of fMRI fMRI Examination: Task Protocol Clinical Applications of fMRI Conclusion Cross-References References Focus Foetal Death Folk Psychology Food Food Aversions and Cravings Synonyms Introduction Dietary Aversions Dietary Cravings Conclusion References Food Dunking Synonyms Definition Introduction Food Dunking by Birds Food Dunking by Primates Food Dunking by Other Mammals Conclusion Cross-References References Food Ingestion Food Preferences Synonyms Definition Introduction Omnivores and their Dilemma Innate Preferences Through Taste Food Palatability Developing Preferences: Genes and Environment Modern Food Environment: The Mismatch Conclusions Cross-References References Food Restriction Food Selection Food Sharing Food Sharing and Nonhuman Reciprocal Altruism Definition Introduction Mechanisms and Examples of Food Sharing Conclusion Cross-References References Food Sharing Hypothesis Food Sharing in Vampire Bats Food Washing Footbridge Foragers Foraging Ability Foraging Decision Force Forced Copulation Synonyms Definition Forced Copulation Cross-References References Forced In-Pair Copulation Forced In-Pair Copulation (FIPC) Forced Mating Forced Matings Forced Sexual Intercourse Forecasting Forgiveness Formidability Formidability Assessment Formidability Perception Forms of Adoption Synonyms Definition Introduction Adopting Related Children Adopting Unrelated Children Altruistically Motivated Adoption Socially Motivated Adoption Economically Motivated Adoption Conclusion Cross-References References Formula Feeding Fornication Fostering Fostering Values of Fairness Synonyms Definition Introduction Explaining Deviations from Selfishness The Puzzle of Impartiality Conclusion Cross-References References Founder of Four-Field Anthropology Founders of Evolutionary Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Psychology Is Not Sociobiology Basic Evolutionary Underpinnings A Short Introduction to Evolutionary Psychology A Meeting During an Earthquake Wilson and Daly: Young Male Syndrome and Homicide Young Male Syndrome Homicide Cosmides and Tooby: Human Universals and Interpersonal Competition Culture, Learning, and Evolved Human Universals Solving the Wason Selection Task Strategic Modeling Buss: Individual Differences and Mate Preferences Cross-Cultural Mate Preferences Evolutionary Personality Psychology Sexual Strategy Theory Jealousy Considering Future Developments Conclusions Cross-References References Four-Stage Model of the Sexual Response Synonyms Definition Introduction Four-Stage Model of the Sexual Response (1) Excitement (2) Plateau (3) Orgasm (4) Resolution Conclusion Cross-References References Foxes Francis T. McAndrew Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Frank Sulloway (1996) On Birth Order Synonyms Definition Introduction Role of Parental Investment in Creating Birth Order Effects Sibling Niche Theory Functional Birth Order and Adaptive Strategies Evidence Presented in Born to Rebel: Birth Order and Scientific Revolutions Conclusion Cross-References References Frans de Waal Definition Introduction A Life Studying Primates Conclusion Cross-References References Frans de Waal´s (1982), Chimpanzee Politics Definition Introduction Power and Dominance in Chimpanzee Society Conclusion Cross-References References Franz Boas Synonyms Definition Introduction Early Life and Education in Germany Boas in the United States Four-Field Anthropology Cultural Anthropology (Ethnology) Folklore and Mythology Linguistics Physical Anthropology Archaeology Social and Political Activism Conclusion Cross-References References Fraternal Birth Order, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Fraternal Birth Order Effect and Its Origins Conclusion Cross-References References Fraternal Relationality Fraternity Fratricide Free Rider Free Riding Free Will Free Will (Philosophy) Synonyms Definition Introduction The Problem of Causal Determinism The Manipulation Argument and Compatibilism Libertarianism Conclusion Cross-References References Freedom Free-Rider French Kissing Frequency of Infidelity Synonyms Definition Introduction Research on Infidelity Frequency of Infidelity Evolutionary Pressures Cultural Influences Findings from the MARQ Studies of Five Cultures Conclusion Cross-References References Frequency-Dependent Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Frequency-Dependent Selection The Importance of Positive and Negative Frequency-Dependent Selection Conclusion: The Conceptual Challenge of Frequency-Dependent Selection Cross-References Acknowledgment References Freud and Gender Freud and Human Sexuality Freud and Psychosexual Development Freud on Sex Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex as the Foundation of All Neurosis Infantile Sexuality Conclusion Cross-References References Freud´s Psychoanalytic Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction The Id The Ego The Superego Defense Mechanisms Stages of Psychosexual Development in Childhood The Most Direct Path to the Unconscious Mind: Dreams Conclusion Cross-References References Freudian Theory Friends Friends with Benefits Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Approaching Friends with Benefits Outcomes of Friends with Benefits Friends with Benefits and Personality Conclusions Cross-References References Friendship Friendship and Modern Life Synonyms Definition Introduction Standard Accounts of Friendship Friendship and Modern Life Three Kinds of Modern Friendship The Capacity to Develop (True) Friendships Maintaining Friendships Conclusion Cross-References References Friendship Groups Friendships Frights Frontal Cortex Synonyms Definition Introduction Frontal Cortex Anatomy Evolutionary Structural Comparisons Evolutionary Functional Comparisons Other Potential Evolutionary Frontal Cortex Functions Future Directions Cross-References References Frontal Lobe Frugivory By-Product Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolution of Frugivory Diets Alcohol Consumption as a Byproduct of Frugivory Diets Conclusion Cross-References References Fuck Buddies Full Sibling Full Siblings Versus Half Siblings Synonyms Definition Introduction Cooperation Between Full and Half Siblings Conflicts Between Full and Half Siblings Conclusions Cross-References References Function of Adoption Synonyms Definition Introduction Altruistic Parental Substitution Kin Support Social Networking Conclusion Cross-References References Function of Dominance Synonyms Definition Introduction Characteristics of the Hierarchy Group Success Methods and Mechanisms for Obtaining Status Through Dominance Conclusion Cross-References References Function of Morality (Haidt) Synonyms Definition Introduction Foundations and Functions of Morality Conclusion Cross-References References Function of Pathogen Prevalence (Thornhill and Fincher) Synonyms Definition Introduction Local Pathogens and Local Immunity Regional Variation in Pathogen Prevalence Functions of Pathogen Prevalence Conclusion Cross-References References Function of Reproductive Strategy (Kurzban) Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Function Versus Capability Synonyms Definition Introduction The Capabilities of Memory Systems The Functions of Memory Systems Conclusion Cross-References References Functional Behaviorism Functional Benefits of Punishment Functional Brain Imaging Functional Fixity Functional MRI Functional Play Functional Specialization Fundamental Motives Synonyms Definition Introduction Conceptualizing the Fundamental Motives Framework Activating Fundamental Motives to Explore their Effects Examining Individual Differences in the Fundamental Motives Looking at how Fundamental Motives Apply Cross-Nationally Conclusion Cross-References References Fundamental Motives Framework Fundamental Social Motives Fundamental Tradeoffs Definition Introduction Fundamental Trade-Offs in Life History Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Funereal Rites Funniness Funny Future Reproductive Capacity FWHR G G. C. Williams Gait Game Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction ``Games´´ in Game Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Game Theory as a Foundation of Evolutionary Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction Game Theory Historical Background Traditional Game Theory Overview Types of Strategies and Strategy Sets Types of Games Solution Concepts Examples and Notation Evolutionary Game Theory Overview Biology: Game Theory at Many Levels The Influence of Game Theory on Evolutionary Psychology Classic Applications: Humans Are Not ``Rational´´ Altruism, Cooperation, and Monogamy The Persistence of Human Psychological Variation: Rock, Paper, Scissors, Sandpiper Frontiers of Game Theory in Evolutionary Psychology The Imprint of Genetic Conflict on our Psyche Humans: Camper Vans for Competing Microorganisms V. Limitations of Game Theory Traditional Game Theory: Poor Assumptions about Humanity? Complications of Heritability and Individuality: A Crisis for Evolutionary Game Theory? Conclusion Cross-References References Gamete Dimorphism Gamete Size Synonyms Definition Introduction Isogamy and Anisogamy Evolution of Gamete Size Evolutionary Consequences of Gamete Size Dimorphism Conclusion Cross-References References Gametes Gang Affiliation Synonyms Definition Introduction Entitativity of Groups Entitative Characteristics of Gangs An Evolutionary Perspective on Groups The Function of Gangs Conclusion Cross-References References Gang Attacks Gang Membership Gaps in Darwin´s Initial Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Fleeming Jenkin´s Critique Explaining Seemingly Nonadaptive Traits The Origin of Species and Transitional Forms Conclusion Cross-References References Garment Gathering Returns When Nursing Infants Synonyms Definition Introduction Calibration of Nursing Based on Environment Evolutionary Benefits of Breastfeeding Allonursing and Benefits of Nursing Conclusion Cross-References References Gaze Gender Gender and Sexual Minorities (GSM) Gender Categorization Gender Development Gender Differences Gender Differences in Disgust Gender Differences in Lachrymation Gender Differences in Lacrimation Gender Differences in SDO Gender Differences in Sobbing Gender Differences in Weeping Gender Distinction Gender Dysphoria Synonyms Definition Introduction Phenomenology Epidemiology Associated Psychopathology Developmental Course of Gender Dysphoria Casual (Etiological) Explanations Therapeutics Conclusion Cross-References References Gender Equality Gender Identity Disorder Gender Incongruence Gender Inequality Gender of Friend Synonyms Definition Introduction Levels of Friendship The Evolutionary Roots of Friendship Sex Differences in Friendship Same-Sex Friendships Among Women Same-Sex Friendships Among Men Similarities Shaping Differences Between the Sexes Cross-Sex Friendships: Sexual Strategies Theory, Risks, and Benefits Caveats to Cross-Sex Claims Conclusion Cross-References References Gender Role Inventory Gender Schema Gender Schema Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Early Theory Development Features of Bem´s Gender Schema Theory Features of Martin and Halverson´s Gender Schema Theory Summary Applications to Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Gender Segregation Gender Self-Stereotyping Gene Disease Gene-Centered Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection Gene-Culture Coevolution General Intelligence Factor G (Reader, Hager, and Laland, 2011) Definition Introduction Review Reader, Hager, and Laland (2011) Fernandes, Woodley, and te Nijuenhuis (2014) Burkart, Schubiger, and van Schaik (2016) Woodley of Menie, Fernandes, te Nijenhuis, Peñaherrera Aguirre, and Figueredo (2016) Conclusion Cross-References References Generativeness Genes and Culture Interaction Genetic Abnormalities Synonyms Definition Introduction The History of Genetics Genetics Evolution and Psychology Genetic Abnormalities Psychological Aspect of Genetic Abnormalities Other Psychological Effects Benefits of Psychological Treatment Conclusion Cross-References References Genetic Alterations Genetic and Prenatal Components of Homosexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction Hormonal Influences Genes Conclusion and Societal Impact Cross-References References Genetic Codes Genetic Codification of Behavior Genetic Conflict Genetic Conflict Between the Sexes Genetic Deterioration Genetic Determinism Synonyms Definition Introduction History Hereditarianism and Existential Ideals The Case for (Revised) Genetic Determinism Conclusion Cross-References References Genetic Disorder Genetic Diversity Hypothesis Genetic Hypotheses of Homophobia Synonyms Definition Introduction Genetically Driven Threat Perception and Management Mutation-Selection Balance and Assortative Mating Sex Differences in Homophobia Gene-Environment Interplay Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Genetic Influences of Puberty Synonyms Definition Introduction Regulation of Puberty Neuropeptide Regulation of Puberty Genetic Factors Regulating Puberty Metabolic Control of Puberty Environmental Influences on Puberty Conclusion Cross-References References Genetic Inheritance Genetic Load Definition Introduction Review Genetic Load The Significance of the Concept to Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Genetic Mutation Genetic Polygamy Definition Introduction Basic Methods for Examining Genetic Variation Human Genetic Patterns of Mating Conclusion Cross-References References Genetic Predispositions Synonyms Definitions Introduction Estimating the Heritability of a Trait Implicating Genetic Variants Population Genetics and Environmental Influences Genetic Testing Conclusion Cross-References References Genetic Quality Genetic Relatedness Synonyms Definition Introduction The Puzzle of Altruism Solving the Puzzle Using r in Hamilton´s Rule Conclusion Cross-References References Genetic Relatedness Affects Aid to Kin Synonyms Definition Introduction Animal Studies Self-Report Measures Observational Measures Proximate Mechanisms Conclusion Cross-References References Genetic Relatedness and Child Abuse Synonyms Definition Introduction Kin Selection Parental Characteristics Conclusion Cross-References References Geneticist Genital Arousal Genital Coevolution Genital Cutting Genital Evolution Synonyms Definition Introduction Male and Female Genitalia Conclusion Cross-References References Genital Evolution and Sexual Selection Definition Introduction Lock and Key Pleiotropy Sexual Selection Conclusion References Genital Mutilation Synonyms Definition Introduction Female Genital Mutilation Male Genital Mutilation Conclusion Cross-References References Genital Operations Genital Surgeries Genomic Imprinting Genotype Genuine Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction Genuine Altruism: Points and Counterpoints Conclusion Cross-References References Geoffrey Miller Synonyms Definition Introduction The Mind as a Fitness Indicator? Creativity Language Use and Vocabulary Altruism as a Courtship Display Modern Day Consumerism as a Costly Signal Conclusion Cross-References References Geoffrey Miller on Conspicuous Consumption Synonyms Definition Introduction Veblen on Conspicuous Consumption Miller on Conspicuous Consumption Conspicuous Consumption of Fine Wine Conclusion Cross-References References George C. Williams Synonyms Definition Introduction Theory of Senescence Group-Level Versus Individual-Level Selection and Adaptation Evolutionary Medicine Conclusion Cross-References References George C. Williams (Founder of Darwinian Medicine) George Williams Synonyms Definition Introduction Main Idea Conclusion Cross-References References George Williams on Group Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Probable Cases of Group Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Germs Gestalt Perception Gestalt Psychology Gestalt Theory Synonyms Definitions Introduction Gestalt Organization Gestalt Grouping Principles Figure-Ground Organization Illusory Contours Conclusions Cross-References References Gestation Gestation Period Gestational Diabetes and Maternal-Fetal Conflict Synonyms Definition Introduction What is Gestational Diabetes? Prediction 1: Fetal Glucose Demand Prediction 2: Maternal Countermeasures Conclusion Cross-References References Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) Gestural Communication Gestural Glottogonic Theory Gestural Origin Theory Gestural Theory Synonyms Definitions Introduction The History of the Gestural Theory of Language Evolution Conclusions Cross-References References Gesture Gestures Gestures of Despair Gifts Girls Psychological Bullying Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Motives Behind Girls´ Psychological Bullying Conclusion Cross-References References Girls´ Interest in Familial Care Introduction to Girls´ Interest in Familial Care Play Parenting Biological Basis of Play Parenting in Humans Conclusion References Giving Up Global Homicide Trends Global Warming Gluteal-Femoral Region Goal Detection Synonyms Definition Introduction Goal Detection is Precocious Can Infants Detect Failed Goals? Is Goal-Detection Species-Specific? Conclusion Cross-references References Goals Synonyms Definition Introduction Life History Strategies and Risky Adolescent Behavior Rational for Sex Education in Schools What Is Sex Education and What Are the Current Goals? Implications for Intervention Conclusion Cross-References References Gonadarche Good Genes Synonyms Definition Introduction The Role of Good Genes for Sexual Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Good Genes Theory Good Health and Stable Future Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolving Concept of Health Determinants of Good Health Determinants of Stable Future Integrating Health with Future Conclusion Cross-References References Good Parenting Qualities Synonyms Definition Introduction Parenting Behavior and Genetic Confounding Mothers and Significant Others Conclusion Cross-References References Good Standing Good-Sperm Models Gordon Orians Introduction American Blackbirds Community Ecology Savanna Hypothesis Snakes, Sunrises, and Shakespeare: How Evolution Shapes Our Loves and Fears Awards and Service to the Profession Conclusions Cross-References References Gossip Gossip and Grooming Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Hominid Brain Expansion and Colonization of the Foraging Niche Conclusion Cross-References References Gossip and Indirect Reciprocity Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Gossip, Rumors, and Social Exclusion Synonyms Definition Introduction The Functions of Gossip and Rumors Theoretical Advantages of Social Exclusion to Females Conclusion Cross-References References Governmental Public Archives Governmental Public Documents Governmental Records Gradually Deprive of Mother´s Milk Grammar Synonyms Definition Introduction Innate Principles: Argument from the Poverty of the Stimulus (PoS) Parameters: Explaining Language Variation Conclusion Cross-References References Grammaticalization Grammaticalization Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Grammaticalization Mechanisms Explanations Pathways Issues Conclusion Cross-References References Grammaticization Grammatization Grandfather Investment Versus Grandmother Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Grandfather and Grandmother Investment Conclusions Cross-References References Grandiose Self-Esteem Grandmother Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Senescence and Menopause Grandmothers and Alloparenting Evolutionary Timeline Conclusion Cross-References References Grandmother Hypothesis of Menopause Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Grandmother Hypothesis, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Hypothesis and Background Evidence Other Hypotheses for Human Menopause, Post-Reproductive Life Span, and Longevity Conclusion Cross-References References Grandparent Investment Grandparental Care Grandparental Investment Synonym Definition Introduction Definition and Measurement of Grandparental Investment Consanguine Grandparental Investment Non-consanguine Grandparental Investment Conclusion Cross-References References Grandparental Investment and Genetic Relatedness Synonyms Definition Introduction Nonbiological Grandparents Paternity Uncertainty Sex Chromosome Relatedness Conclusion Cross-References References Grandparental Involvement Grandparental Solicitude Grandparenting Definition Synonyms Introduction Theoretical Frameworks and Grandparenting Grandparents and Grandchild´s Developmental Outcomes Grandparenting Role and Grandparents Factors Moderating Grandparenting Personal and Contextual Factors Conclusions and Implications Cross-References References Grandparents and Grandchildren Synonyms Definition Introduction Biased Grandparental Investment Pattern Parents as Gatekeepers The Outcomes of Grandparental Presence and Grandparental Investment Conclusion Cross-References References Grasslands Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Did We Leave the Treetops? Climate Change Were We ``Pushed Out´´? Conclusion Cross-References References Gratitude, Sympathy, and Empathy Synonyms Definition Introduction Gratitude Sympathy Empathy Evolutionary Explanations Conclusion Cross-References References Gravidity Gravity Hypothesis, The Synonyms Definition Introduction More Recent Variations and Improvements of the GH The Curvilinear GH The Bridging GH Findings and Controversy A General Trade-Off Model to Explain the Evolution and Maintenance of Extreme SSD Future Perspectives Conclusion Cross-References References Great Ape Psychiatry Great Apes Greater Polygyny Selects for Greater Risk-Taking Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Selection and Polygyny Conclusion Cross-References References Greater Risk-Taking and Status Synonyms Definition Introduction Status Competition and Risk Taking Conclusion Cross-References References Green Beard Effect, The Definition Introduction The Green Beard Effect and Kin Selection Are Greenbeards Stable? Greenbeards in Reality Evil Beards Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Green Exercise Greenbeard Effect Grief Grooming Grossed Out Group Augmentation Group Hunting Group Leaders Group Living Synonyms Definition Introduction Within-Group Processes Navigating Social Hierarchies Social Dominance Prestige Cooperation Social Exchange Friendship Cooperation and the Supernatural Social Exclusion and Stigmatization Dyadic Cooperation Selection for Within-Group Membership Parasite Avoidance Between-Group Processes Categorization Intergroup Psychology Intergroup Competition and Conflict Conclusion Cross-References References Group Mortality During Environmental Stress Group Organization Group Relationships Group Selection Definition Introduction Old Group Selection Versus Selfish Gene Theory: A History New Group Selection and Multilevel Selection Theory Formalizing Group Selection Multilevel Selection Theory The Equivalence of Group Selection, Kin Selection, and Evolutionary Game Theory Kin Selection Evolutionary Game Theory The Imprint of Group Selection on Human Psychology Altruistic Punishment as an Explanation of Human Ultrasociality Groupish Psychological Tendencies Criticism Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Group Size Synonyms Definition Introduction Optimal Group Size The Rules of Entry into Groups Effect of Genetic Relatedness Effect of Dominance Hierarchy Group Size Distributions Observed in Nature Conclusion Cross-References References Group Size Optimality and Stability Synonyms Definition Introduction Is the ``Optimal Group Size´´ Unstable? Stable from Whose Point of View? Resolution Models Predict the Observed Group Size Conclusion Cross-References References Group Social Structure Group Socialization Theory Grouping and Predation Synonyms Introduction The Social Response of Prey to Predation Pressure Mechanisms for the Reduction of Predation Risk in Groups The Dilution Effect, Attack Abatement, and Detecting Groups of Prey The Selfish Herd Confusion Effect Group Defense Group Vigilance (the ``Many-Eyes´´ Effect) Conclusion Cross-References References Groups and Categories Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Group-Serving Biases Growth Gua the chimpanzee Guns, Germs, and Steel Synonyms Definition Introduction Environmental Pressure on Very First Civilizations From Germs to Guns and Steel Conclusion Cross-References References Gut Feelings Gut Microbiome Synonyms Definition Introduction Symbiosis and Evolution Human Physiological and Disease Associations Human Behavioral Associations Evidence for Behavioral Influences in Animal Models Concluding Remarks Cross-References References Gut Microbiota H Habitat Habitat Change Synonyms Definition Introduction Our Original Habitat The African Savannah Conclusion Cross-References References Habitat Selection Habitual Processing Habituation Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Background The Nature of Habituation Interstimulus Interval Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination Spontaneous Recovery Conclusion Cross-References References Half-Siblings in Human Evolutionary History Synonyms Definition Introduction Relation of Half-Siblings Siblings as Rivals Siblings as Resources Half-Siblings and Sexual Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Hallucinations Hamilton´s Forces Hamilton´s Rule Synonyms Definition Introduction The Rule Conclusion Cross-References References Hamilton´s Rule and Genetic Relatedness Synonyms Definition Introduction Hamilton´s Rule Hamilton´s Rule and Genetic Relatedness Application of Hamilton´s Rule Significance of Hamilton´s Rule References Hamilton´s Rule and Kin Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Hamilton´s Rule and Human Populations Conclusion Cross-References References Hamilton´s Rule and Theoretical Implications Definition Introduction Useful Terms Implications of Hamilton´s Rule Questions That Biology Can Answer Information and Price´s Formulation of Altruism Genes, Selfish, and Otherwise Cooperation and the Major Biological Transitions Direct and Indirect Fitness Relatedness Families and Tribes Strong Reciprocity and Economic Games Group Selection and Selection for Groupishness Misconceptions About Inclusive Fitness Conclusion Cross-References References ``Hammer´´ and ``Anvil´´ Stones Hand Axe Handbook Handicap Hypothesis Handicap Principle Handicap Principle, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Logic of the Handicap Principle The Handicap Principle in Nonhuman Animals The Handicap Principle in Humans Is the Theory Likely to Be Correct? Evaluating the Theory on Its Scientific Merits Novel Hypotheses Conclusion Cross-References References Handy Man Harassing Harassment Hard to Fake Signaling Harems Synonyms Definition Introduction The Different Applications of the Term Harem Harems and Their Evolutionary Implications Under the Shadow of Harem Masters Controversies Regarding the Term Conclusion Cross-References References Harlotry Harmed Harming Harris´ Moral Landscape Synonyms Definition Introduction Overview of The Moral Landscape Conclusion Cross-References References Harsh Environments Synonyms Definition Introduction Disambiguating ``Harshness´´ Conclusion The Importance of Harsh Environments Cross-References Acknowledgment References Head Injury Headmen Health Health Benefits of Nature Synonyms Definition Introduction Stress and Recovery Attention Restoration Mood and Outlook on Life From Research to Practice Conclusion Cross-References References Health Cues Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolution of Cues and Signals of Health Cues to Health Proposed Cues to Trait Health Proposed Cues to State Health The Relative Importance of Cues to State and Trait Health Conclusion Cross-References References Health Education Health Markers Synonyms Definition Introduction Phenotypic Indicators of Health in Animals and Humans Physical Traits, Symmetry, and Mate Preference in Humans Condition-Dependent Signals and the Role of MHC and ``Good Genes´´ in Mate Preference Sexual Dimorphism in Facial Traits, Attractiveness, and Indicators of Health Conclusion Cross-References References Healthy Sexual Development Healthy State Hearing Synonyms Definition Introduction The Auditory Process Evolutionary Anatomy of Hearing Structures Evolutionary Process of Discriminatory Properties Conclusion Cross-References References Heart Pound Heart Rate Synonyms Introduction Definitions Heart Rate Ventricle Is There Any Difference Between Heart Rate and Rhythm? Source of a Pulse: The Heart The Result of Heartbeat: Pulse Genes Affecting Heart Rate Arrhythmia Bradycardia/Bradyarrhythmia Tachycardia Supraventricular Arrhythmia Treatment of Dysrhythmia Emotional State of the Mind and Role of Heart Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability Heart Rate Variability Heart Rate Variability and Psychiatric Disorders Conclusion Cross-References References Heartbeat Hedge Sparrow Mating System Heidelberg Man Height and Dominance Synonyms Definition Introduction Height and Dominance Conclusion Cross-References References and Further Reading Helper at the Nest Among Nonhuman Primates Definition Introduction How Do Helpers Help? Is Helping Costly? Why Do Helpers Help? Does Helping Make a Difference? Helpers in Other Primates Conclusion Cross-References References Helpers at the Nest Definition Introduction Main Text Conclusion Cross-References References Helping Helping and Genetic Relatedness Synonyms Definition Introduction Hamilton´s Rule Estimating Genetic Similarity Familiarity-Dependent Kin Recognition Phenotype Matching Assessing Costs and Benefits of Altruism Conclusion Cross-References References Helping and Inclusive Fitness Benefits to Helper Synonyms Definition Introduction Indirect Benefits for the Helper Direct Benefits for the Helper By-Product Benefits Social Benefits Conclusion Cross-References References Helping and Reproductive Value of the Recipient Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex of the Recipient Age of the Recipient Status and Resources of the Recipient Physical Status of the Recipient Mental Health of the Recipient Sexuality and Reproductive Value Conclusion Cross-References References Helping at the Nest Helping More Likely with Close Kin than More Distant Kin Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Heraldry Herding Herding Culture of Violence Hereditary Transmission Heredity Heritability Synonyms Definition Introduction Populations and Individuals The Utility of Heritability Estimates Heritability of Psychological Traits Nonadditivity Conclusion Cross-References References Heritage Hero Heroic Rescue in Humans Synonyms Definition Introduction Differentiating Heroic Behavior from Other Forms of Altruism Heroic Rescuing of Relatives Heroic Rescuing of Friends Heroic Rescuing of Strangers Sex Differences in Heroic Rescuing War Heroism Conclusion Cross-References References Heroism Heroism in War and Civil Life Heschel´s Gyrus Heterosexism Heterosexuality Heuristic Process Heuristics Ecological Rationality Building Blocks of Heuristics Examples of Heuristics References Hidden Ovulation Hide and Hurry Hierarchical Climbing Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Aspects Significance Practical Aspects Conclusion Cross-References References Hierarchical Position Hierarchies Hierarchy High Achiever High Blood Pressure High SES Against Redistribution Synonyms Definition Introduction Redistribution and Status Motivations for Redistribution Conclusion Cross-References References High SES Low Egalitarian Instincts High SES Low Support for Redistribution High Status High Status Individual High-Cost High-Cost Altruism High-Cost Altruistic Helping Synonyms Definition Introduction Disambiguations Theory: How Can Helping Evolve, Particularly if It Is Extremely Costly? The Intricacies of Studying High-Cost Helping Evidence from Controlled Experimental Studies on Helping Behavior Evidence from Documented Historical Cases of High-Cost Helping Conclusion Cross-References References High-Cost Helping Higher Status in Group Synonyms Definition Introduction The Antecedents of Higher Social Status Freely Conferred Status Coercively Imposed Status The Consequences of Higher Social Status Conclusion Cross-References References Higher Survival with Older Siblings Synonyms Definition Introduction Alloparenting by Siblings and Cultures Sibling Caregiving Conclusion Cross-References References High-Level Representation Highly Structured Society High-Risk Rescue High-Stakes Altruism Hilarious Hilariousness Historical Contingency History of Abuse Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Learning Mechanisms Attachment Theory Social Psychological Processes and Personality Traits Neurophysiological and Genetic Explanations Evolutionary Perspectives Conclusion Cross-References References History of Attachment Theory Synonyms Definition Ethological Beginnings Bowlby´s Attachment Theory Empirically Measuring Attachment References History of Civilizations History of Dominance Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Origins of Dominance Theory (Ethology) The History of Dominance Theory in Human Societies Cummins on Dominance Hierarchies Other Aspects of Dominance Hierarchies Sex Differences and Dominance Hierarchies Conclusion Cross-References References History of Inheritance Synonyms Definition Introduction Inheritance and the Theories of Generation Inheritance and Hybridization in Natural History Inheritance and Evolution Experimental Biology and the Discontinuous View of Inheritance The Century of the Gene Inheritance in the Post-Genomic Era Conclusions Cross-References References History of Natural Selection History of Sperm Competition in Humans Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence in Men Evidence in Women Conclusion Cross-References References Holistic Sexuality Education Hollywood Actors Synonyms Definition Introduction Attractiveness and Hollywood Actors Attractiveness and Anger Conclusion Cross-References References Holmes and Sherman (1982) on Ground Squirrels Synonyms Definition Introduction Mechanisms of Kin Recognition Ground Squirrels as Model Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Home Language Acquisition Home Literacy Home Ranges Homeostasis Homicide Homicide Adaptation Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Homicide as an Adaptation Conclusion Cross-References References Homicide and Life History Theory Homicide by Design Synonyms Definition Introduction Homicide Adaptation Theory Ideation and Design Signal Affects Conclusion Cross-References References Homicide Fantasies and Evolved Homicide Module Theory References Homicide Modules Homicide, to Kill Hominid Hominidae Hominids Hominin Evolution Synonyms Definition Introduction Hominin Evolutionary History Hominins in Comparative Perspective Systematics of the Primates Outline of Primate Evolution Hominin Relationships to African Apes Implications for Hominin Origins Environmental Context for Hominin Evolution Hominin Origins Early Hominin Evolution The Origins of Homo The Evolution of Homo in the Pleistocene Later Homo Diversity The Evolution of Modern Humans Genetic Evidence Fossil Evidence Archaeological Evidence Admixture Between Modern Humans and Archaic Hominins The Evolution of Human Diversity The Pattern of Hominin Evolution Bipedalism Encephalization and Life History Technology Culture Adaptive Radiations Hominin Diversity Transitions in Hominin Evolution The Evolution of Human Cognition Evidence for Evolving Cognitive Capacity Social and Ecological Models for the Evolution of Hominin Cognition The Costs of Cognition The Evolution of Language Conclusion Cross-References References Homo economicus Homo erectus Definition Introduction Chronology Behavioral Innovations Phylogenetic Position Conclusion Cross-References References Homo floresiensis Synonyms Definition Introduction Discovery, Description and Evolutionary Scenaries Conclusion Cross-References References Homo habilis Synonyms Definition Introduction Discovery and Anatomy Controversy and Further Finds Reconsideration of Homo habilis Conclusion References Homo heidelbergensis Synonyms Definition Introduction Additional Finds African Finds Debate on Naming Sima de los Huesos Conclusion References Homo neanderthalensis Synonyms Definition Introduction Geographical Distribution and Geological Age Neanderthal Anatomy Neanderthal Behavior Neanderthal Extinction Neanderthal and Modern Human Interbreeding Conclusion References Homo rudolfensis Synonyms Definition Introduction History of Discovery and Taxonomic Challenges Conclusion Cross-References References Homogamy/Heterogamy Homology of Ear Ossicles to the Reptilian Jaw Bones Homonegativity Homophily Homophobia Synonyms Definition Introduction Using Evolutionary Psychology to Understand (Sexual) Prejudice Overview of Stereotypes of, Prejudices Toward, and Discrimination Against LGB Conclusion Cross-References References Homophobic Bullying Synonyms Definition Introduction Prevalence of Homophobic Bullying Demographic Differences in Homophobic Bullying Impact of Homophobic Bullying Homophobic Bullying and School Climate Conclusion Cross-References References Homophobic Victimization Homosexual Behavior Homosexual Orientation Homosexual Preference Homosexual Receptivity Synonyms Definition Introduction Homosexual Behaviour Conclusion Cross-References References Homosexuality Homosexuality Paradox, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Does Homosexuality Have Heritable Components? Is Homosexuality Universal and Frequent? Does Homosexuality Reduce Reproductive Success? Is Homosexuality an Ancestral Condition? Evidence Against Male Sexual Fluidity Evidence in Support of Male Sexual Fluidity Is There an Evolutionary Puzzle? Proposed Solutions Male Hypotheses Female Hypotheses Conclusion Cross-References References Honest Signaling Honest Signalling Honest Signals Honesty Honor Code Synonyms Definition Social and Cultural Underpinnings of Honor Code Conclusion Cross-References References Honor Concern Honor Cultures Honor Killing Honor-Related Violence Hooking Up Hookup Culture Synonyms Definition Introduction Creation of the Hookup Culture Conclusion Cross-References References Hookups Hook-Ups Hopelessness Horizontal Family Relations Hormonal Component of Homosexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction Main Text: Orientation and Organizational Changes Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Hormonal Contraception Hormonal Contraceptives Hormonal Cues to Attractiveness Hormone Effects on Human Fetal Development Prenatal Programming, Cortisol Conclusion References Hormone-Based Contraception Hormones Horrors Hostile Masculinity Definition Introduction Factors Contributing to Hostile Masculinity Evolutionary Theory and Hostile Masculinity Conclusion Cross-References References Hostilities Hostility Hour Glass How Evolutionary Psychology Can Still Explain Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Psychological Attributes as Biological Adaptations Psychology as a Descendent of Biology Evolutionary Mismatch Theory Evolutionary Psychology and the Subdisciplines of Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References How the Mind Works Synonyms Definition Introduction Main Assertions Conclusion Cross-References References Human Human and Nonhuman Behavior Human Artifacts Human Behavior Human Behavioral Ecology Synonyms Definition Introduction Trends Case Study 1: Children´s Time Allocation and Schooling in Tanzania (Hedges et al. 2018) Case Study 2: Temporal Changes of Grandmotherhood Patterns in Finland (Chapman et al. 2018) Integration with Evolutionary Psychology and Cultural Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References Human Brain Evolution Definition Introduction Evolution of the brain in the human lineage Cross-References References Human Brain Size Evolution Human Computer Interaction Human Constructed Elements Human Cooperation Human Copulation Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Copulation Oral Sex Vaginal Sex Anal Sex Conclusion Cross-References References Human Courting Synonyms Definition Introduction Parental Investment Sexual Intent Operational Sex Ratio Conclusion Cross-References References Human Deception Synonyms Definitions Introduction Differential Temporal Strategies Deception and Evolution Frequency Dependent Selection Single vs. Dual Selective Pressures on Mimic Cheaters Differentiating Human Deception Strategies Personality and Deception: The Dark Triad Conclusion Cross-References References Human Dietary Predispositions Human Diversity Human Enculturation Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Adaptability Social Values Emergence of Identity within Culture Morality Darwinism and Moral Emotions The Empirical and Normative Senses of Morality Moral Behaviors in Nonhuman Species Studies on Moral Behavior in Primates Evolution of Justice Embodiment of the Self in the Community Rites of Passage The Role of Honor Code Development Levels for Compliance and Ethics Spiritual Development The Role of Spiritual Meditation in Enculturation Conclusion Cross-References References Human Estrus Human Evolution Human Evolutionary Ecology Human Genome Project, The Definition Introduction History and Significance Conclusion References Human Groups Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Group as a Researcher´s Construct Lay Theory of Social Groups Conclusion Cross-References References Human Improvement Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) System Human Locomotion Human Mate Poaching Human Mate Poaching (Schmitt and Buss, 2001) Synonyms Definition Introduction Patterns of Human Mate Poaching Empirical Evidence for Mate Poaching Limitations and Impacts Conclusion Cross-References References Human Milk Human Nature Human Nature and Biocultural Evolution Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Human Ornamentation Synonyms Definition Introduction The Conscious Ape The Building Blocks of Human Ornamentation: Behavioral Modernity Group Membership The Human Canvas and Upping the Ante Modern Ornamentation Conclusion Cross-References References Human Paleontology Human Play Human Precopulatory Sexual Conflict Introduction Sexual Conflict Before Puberty Sexual Conflict After Puberty Conclusion References Human Products Synonyms Definitions Introduction Human Products as Indicators of a Pyramid of Human Needs Human Products as Indicators of Niche-Construction Process Human Products as Indicators of an Evolved Aesthetic Preferences Human Products as Indicators of Positive Design Personal Advertisements: Sources of Data about Mate-Choice Process Human Products (Weapons) as Indicators of Intraspecific Aggression Conclusions Cross-References References Human Reproduction Human Self-Domestication Definition Introduction Domestication Syndrome Human Self-Domestication Conclusion Cross-References References Human Sexual Activity Human Sexual Response Human Sexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Sexuality and the Comparative Approach A Note on Hormonal Mechanisms Underlying Human Sexuality Defining Mating Systems Traditional Mating Systems Mixed Mating Systems Selection Pressures Influencing Vertebrate Mating Systems The Polyandry ``Revolution´´ Within Behavioral Biology Benefits of Female Multiple Mating New Models of Sexual Selection Pressures on Males Hominoid Mating Systems The Ancestral State Chimpanzee and Bonobo Mating Systems Human Versus Pan Mating Systems Unique Features of Human Systems Limits on Reproductive Skew Mating Arrangements and Sexual Exclusivity Offspring Care Mothers and Allomothers Paternal Care Parenting Effort and Testosterone Views About Hunting as ``Parental Effort´´ Adaptations for Mating Mutual Mate Choice Pair-Bonding and Oxytocin Men´s Mating Adaptations Mating (Versus Parenting) Effort and Testosterone Paternity Certainty and Male Care Views About Hunting as ``Mating Effort´´ A Blended View on Hunting in Relation to Human Sexuality Women´s Mating Adaptations The Ovulatory Cycle Mating Effort and Estradiol Social Bonding and Progesterone Cyclic Shifts in Women´s Mating Behavior and Preferences Conclusion Cross-References References Human Sociobiology Human Sperm Competition Definition Introduction Competing Sperm: When, Where, and How Insemination In Vagina In Cervix In Uterus In Oviduct Fertilization Selection on Men Anticipation: Mate Choice Prevention: Mate Guarding Correction Routine Sex Masturbation Response to Sight of a Copulating Pair Urgent and/or Forced ``In-Pair´´ Copulation Penis Shape and Copulatory Behavior Testes Size Sperm Morphology Selection on Women Weak Signals of Fertility Timing of Double Mating by Women Cryptic Female Choice Conclusion Cross-References References Human Sperm Competition Tactics Human Storytelling Synonyms Definition Introduction A Bird´s-Eye View into Storytelling Role in Evolution Why Do We Even Bother? Conclusion Cross-References References Human Tool Making Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Tool Making Conclusion Cross-References Human Tool Manufacture Human Universals Human Visual Neurobiology Synonyms Definition Introduction The Primary Visual Cortex Structure: Retino-Geniculo-Cortical Tract Function Visual Cortical Streams of Processing Dorsal Stream Functions Ventral Stream Functions Spatial Frequency Color Detection The Function of the Organizational Aspects of the Visual CortexRetinal Disparity Modular Organization of the Primary Visual Cortex Evolution of the Human Visual Brain Conclusion Cross-References References Human-Dog Symbiosis Humans Humans as a Social Species Humans as Social Animals Humans as Social Primates Synonyms Definition Introduction Cooperation Social Ties Throughout the Life Span The Neurobiology of Human Sociality Conclusion Cross-References References Humans Crawl: Species Atypical Movement Synonyms Definitions Introduction Factors Influencing the Ontogeny of Gait Gait Ontogeny in Humans Gait Ontogeny in Chimpanzees Conclusion References Humans: Between-Group Conflicts Synonyms Definition Introduction Review Conclusion Cross-References References Humans: Within-Group Conflicts Definition Introduction Review Conclusion Cross-References References Humor Humor and Ostracism Synonyms Definition Introduction The Relation between Humor, Laughter, and Ostracism Conclusion Cross-References References Humor as a Mental Fitness Indicator Humor as a Signal of Sexual Interest Synonyms Definition Introduction Humor as a Sexually Selected Trait Sex Differences in Humor Mate Preferences Sex Differences in Humor Production Conclusion Cross-References References Humor Production Synonyms Definition Introduction Humor Styles Conclusion Cross-References References Hunter Hunter-Gatherer Lifespan Hunter-Gatherer Societies Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-References References Hunter-Gatherer Societies as Sources of Data in Evolutionary Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction Which Hunter-Gatherers? The Evolved Nest Culture and Personality Dealing with Conflict Human Nature and Worldview Conclusion Cross-References References Hunting Ability Hunting Hypothesis Hunting Out of Season Hunting Strategies Hyperadrenocorticism Hyperpiesia Hypertension Synonyms Definition Introduction Blood Pressure Hypertension Thrifty Gene and Salt Hypotheses Barker Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder Hypodermic Impregnation Hypodermic Insemination Hypothalamus I I Am Unaware of Any Synonyms for This Place Name Iberian Peninsula Ideal Partner Preferences Identification of Animated Actors Identifying Adaptive Functions Identity Identity Formation Ill-Matched Images of Nature Imagination Imitation Synonyms Definition Introduction Three Types of Imitation Competition Schumpeterian Competition Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References Imitation and Mimicry Synonyms Definition Introduction Top Down and Bottom Up Neural Correlates Conclusion Cross-References References Imitation of High-Status Others Synonyms Definition Introduction Neurobiology Imitation: A Concept Social Status: A Concept Imitation and High Status: The Connection Conclusion Cross-References References Imitation of Sound Imitation of Sounds Imitative Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Bandura´s Studies on Imitative Aggression Social Learning Theory Ethical Concerns Contemporary Research and Media Violence Sex Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Imitative Assault Immaturity Immediate or Intermediate Recall of Processed Information Immediate-Return Societies Immigrant Parents Synonyms Definition Introduction Patterns of Language Use and Abilities Among Immigrant Children Language Assimilation Across Generations Patterns of Bilingual Language Use in the Home Conclusion: Language Transmission in Bilingual Communities Cross-References References Immoral Immune Response to Disgust and Disease Cues Synonyms Definition Introduction Measure of Immune Activation: Cytokines, Antibodies, Proteins, and Body Temperature Thermal and Immune Response to Disease Cues Conclusion Cross-References References Immune System Immune System Benefits Synonyms Definition Introduction Structure and Functioning of the Immune System Benefits of Immune System: Evidences Conclusion References Immunity Immunocompetence Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesis Immunologic Protection Impact of Early Theory on Charles Darwin Introduction Pre-Renaissance Renaissance Post-Renaissance The French Revolution Environmentalism in France Natural Theology in England Naturphilosophie in Germany The Darwins Erasmus Darwin Charles Robert Darwin 1809-1827 1827-1836 1836-1839 1839-1857 1858-1859 Conclusion Cross-References References Impairment Imperative Knowledge Impersonal Sex Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Implement Implications for Pregnancy Synonyms Definition Introduction The Basics of Pregnancy Hypotheses about Gestation Length Obstetrical Dilemma Hypothesis Energetics of Gestation and Growth Hypothesis Psychological Implications Disease Avoidance Motivation to Affiliate Conclusions Cross-References References Implications of Gossip Implications of Object Permanence Definitions of Object Permanence Practical Implications of Object Permanence Theoretical Implications of Object Permanence Nativist and Other Challenges to Piaget Challenges to the Nativist Position The Perceptual Processing Response The Dynamic Systems Approach Conclusion References Implicit Memory Importance of Grandparental Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Grandparental Importance in Past and Present Societies Conclusion Cross-References References Importance of Maternal Grandmother Grandmother Hypothesis Paternity Certainty Hypothesis Explanation Stronger Matrilineal Family Ties as Explanation Maternal Grandmother and Divorce Cultural Variety Conclusions Cross-References References Imposing Humanlike Characteristics Impotence Impoverish Impression Management Imprinted Gene Imprinting Synonyms Definition Introduction Imprinting as an Ethology Topic Imprinting and Learning Imprinting and the Development of Attachment Conclusion Cross-References References Imprinting Effect Impropriety Improving Competition in Women Impulse-Control Disorders Impulsivity Disorders Synonyms Definition Introduction Impulsivity Disorders Conclusion Cross-References References In Nonhuman Primates Synonyms Definition Introduction Object Permanence Tasks Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References In Vitro Fertilization Inaction Regret Inbreeding Avoidance Inceptive and Derived Memory Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Memory and Computation Adaptive Function of Memory and Its Properties Benefits and Disadvantages Trait Summaries Stored Episodes Conclusion Cross-References References Incest Synonyms Definition Introduction Incest: A Journey Through History Incest: Current Status Across the Globe Risk Factors for Incest Impact of Incest Conclusion References Incest Aversion Incest Avoidance Incest Avoidance and Dating Introduction Conclusions References Incestuous Behavior Incidental Encoding Inclusive Fitness Inclusive Fitness Model of Suicide Inclusive Fitness Theory Income Income Transfer Incongruity Increased Cortisol Synonyms Definition Introduction Cost-Benefit Trade-Offs Functions of the Cortisol Response What Does the HPA Axis Respond to? Sex Differences in HPA Axis and Cortisol Response Conclusion Cross-References References Increased Energy/Reduced Digestion Synonyms Definition Introduction Cooking: Digestion Costs Net Energy Gain: Starches Net Energy Gain: Fats Net Energy Gain: Meat Conclusion Cross-References References Increased Grandchild Survival Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Increasing Competitiveness of Women Increasing Longevity Synonyms Definition Introduction Historical Factors Genetic Factors Environmental Factors Resistance to Stress Positivity Religion Conclusion Cross-References References Increasing Women´s Willingness to Compete Incurrences of Higher Cognition Independent Contrasts Indicator Traits Indicators Indicators and Correlates of Status and Dominance Synonyms Definition Introduction Advantages of High Status Nonhuman Animals Humans Indicators of Status and Dominance in Nonhuman Animals Achieving Status in Humans Definitions of Dominance Overview of Indicators and Correlates to Status in Humans Faces Voices Height Nonverbal Behavior, Personality, and Hormones Color Wealth and Displays of Wealth Relative Dominance Summary Cross-References References Indigenous Religion Indirect Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Developmental Perspective of Indirect Aggression Gender Differences in Indirect Aggression Conclusion Cross-References References Indirect Benefits of Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction Multi-Level Selection Indirect Reciprocity Image Scoring Competitive Altruism Altruistic Punishment Altruism as a Costly Signal Altruism and Mate Choice Conclusion Cross-References References Indirect Benefits of Helping Indirect Bullying Indirect Care Indirect Reciprocity Indirect Sexual Coercion Individual Individual Aspects Related to Criminal Behavior Individual Characteristics Individual Differences Synonyms Definition Introduction Behavioral Genetics Classical Twin Design Adoption Studies MZ Twins Reared Apart (MZA) MZ Twin Discordance Methods Molecular Genetics Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) Gene by Environment (GxE) Gene-Environment Correlation (rGE) Passive rGE Active rGE Evocative rGE Conclusion Cross-References References Individual Differences and Homicide Individual Differences in Violence Individual Discrimination Individual Evolution Individual Perception Individual Recognition Individual Selection Individual Traits Individual Variations in Attachment Definition Introduction Bowlby´s Notion: Variations in Internal Working Models of Self and Others Systematic Mapping of Individual Differences: Variations in the Organization or Quality of Attachment Behavior Single Behaviors as an Insufficient Index of Attachment Quality Organization of Attachment Behaviors as an Index of Attachment Quality: Children´s Ability to Use the Caregiver as a Secure Ba... The Development of the Strange Situation Procedure and Measurement of Children´s Organization of Attachment Behavior Organized Patterns of Attachment: Secure, Insecure-Avoidant, and Insecure-Resistant/Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment Secure Attachment Insecure-Avoidant Attachment Insecure-Ambivalent/Insecure-Resistant Attachment Insecure-Disorganized/Insecure-Disoriented Attachment Reactive Attachment Disorder Conclusion Cross-References References Individualism Collectivism Individuals that Impose Costs Synonyms Definition Introduction Physical Formidability, Resource Control, and the Ability to Impose Costs Dispositional Dominance and the Willingness to Impose Costs The Costs and Benefits of Dominance and Cost Imposition Constraining Dominance and Cost Imposition Conclusion References Individuation Induced Altruism Induced Nepotism Induced Ovulation Definition Introduction Ovulation Induction Factors in Humans Coitus Induced Menstrual Shifts in Humans The Selection Pressure for Ovulation Induction Factors Conclusion Cross-References References Inequity Aversion in Primates Infancy Infant Infant Abandonment Synonyms Definition Introduction Infant Abandonment as a Maternal Adaptation Infant Abandonment in Humans Potential Factors Associated with Infant Abandonment Environmental Factors Child Characteristics Parent Characteristics Postpartum Depression Conclusion Cross-References References Infant Mortality (as Opposed to) Infant Survival Synonyms Definition Introduction Infant Survival by Means of Maintaining Proximity to Caregivers Conclusion Cross-References References Infant-Directed Speech (IDS) Infanticide Infanticide and Parenting Introduction Definitions Infanticide Law Patterns in Neonaticide (Murder in the First Day of Life) Patterns in Infanticide (Murder in the First Year of Life) Patterns in Filicide (Murder Up to Age 18) Maternal Filicides Paternal Filicides Filicide by Step-Parents Motives Evolution and Infanticide Mental Illness and Infanticide Evolutionary Psychology on the Law, Science, and Medicine Conclusions Cross-References References Infanticide by Females Infanticide by Males Infanticide in Non-human Mammals Infanticide in Nonhumans Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptive Hypotheses on Infanticide Risk of Infanticide by Males in Nonhuman Mammals Counterstrategies Against Infanticide by Males in Nonhuman Primates Infanticide by Females Conclusion Cross-References References Infection Inferior Frontal Gyrus Inferior Longitudinal Folliculus Inferiority Infidelity Infidelity Risk Synonyms Definition Introduction Personal Level Relationship Level Contextual Level Conclusion Cross-References References Infinite Capacity Infinite Storage Synonyms Definition Introduction Infinite Storage: Is It Really? Conclusion Cross-References References Influence Informal Leadership Information About Likely Combat Success Synonyms Definition Introduction Standard Explanations from a Rationalist Perspective Potential Sources of Adaptive Military Incompetence Sex Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Information Age Information Exchange Information Processing and the Interdisciplinary Perspective Synonyms Definitions Introduction Information Is Distinct from Meaning and Often Reified in Psychology Though Useful, Information-Processing Models Aren´t Necessarily Correct Descriptions Abstract Meaning of Environmental ``Information´´ Is in the Head Edelman´s Theory of Neuronal Group Selection Rejects Information-Processing Conclusion Cross-References References Information Theory Ingredients of Reciprocal Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction Reciprocal Altruism in the Animal Kingdom The Structure of Reciprocal Altruism Ingredients of Reciprocal Altruism Exchange Partners Goods and Services Giving and Receiving Costs and Benefits Gains in Trade Strategies Antidotes to Cheating Group Contexts The Origin of Adaptations for Reciprocal Altruism Proximate Mechanisms Conclusion Cross-References References In-Group Ingroup Favoritism In-Group Morality In-Group Versus Out-Group Synonyms Definition Introduction Kinship Kin Psychology Parochial Altruism Phenotypic Matching and Strategic Coalitions Religion Political Beliefs Humor and Laughter Conclusion Cross-References References In-Group-Out-Group Bias Synonyms Definition Introduction Types and Effects of Intergroup Bias Conclusion Cross-References References In-Group-Out-Group Dynamics Inheritance Inherited Disease Inherited Status Inhibited Ejaculation Inhibited Sexual Desire Inhibition Synonyms Definition Introduction Behavioral Inhibition Cognitive Inhibition Inhibition in Psychopathology Conclusion Cross-References References Inhibitory Control Inhospitable Environments Injured Party Innate Innate and Learned Tool Use Definition Introduction Is Tool Use Found in at Least One Age-Sex Class? Is Tool Use Highly Heritable? Is Tool Use an Evolved Adaptation? Conclusion Cross-References References Inner Ear Inner Ear Structure Inner Ear, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Physiology of the Inner Ear The Cochlea The Vestibular System Conclusion Cross-References References Inner-Directed Phase Innovation In-Pair Copulation In-Pair Female Attractiveness Bodily and Physical Cues Facial Characteristics Conclusion References In-Pair Mate Retention Inquisitiveness Insect Intrasexual Competition Insect Sperm Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Sperm Competition in Insects Battle of the Sexes Into the Twenty-First Century Conclusion Cross-References References Insight Synonyms Definition Introduction Insightful behavior in Human- and Non-Human Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Insightful Behavior Insist on No More than Equity Synonyms Definition Introduction The Relationship Between Reciprocity and Equity Equity in Human Societies Equity Across Development Conclusion Cross-References References Instil Confidence Institutional Anomie Theory Instruction Instructional Design Synonyms Definition Introduction Categories of Knowledge Human Cognitive Architecture The Information Store Principle The Borrowing and Reorganizing Principle The Randomness as Genesis Principle The Narrow Limits of Change Principle The Environmental Organizing and Linking Principle Conclusions: Cognitive Load Theory and Instuctional Design References Instructionist Instrument Instrumental Associations Instrumental Conditioning Instrumentation Intact Families Integrative Biology Intellect Intellectual Ability Intellectual Capacity Intellectual Functioning Intelligence Synonyms Definition Introduction The Psychometrics of Intelligence How Intelligence Works Modularity The Evolution of Intelligence The Cost of Evolving Intelligence Models of the Evolution of Human Intelligence Ecological Dominance Social Brain Sexual Selection: Is Human Intelligence a Fitness Indicator? Conclusion Cross-References References Intelligence Quotient Intelligence Scales Intelligence Test Intelligence Testing Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-References References Intelligence Versus Natural Selection Synonyms Definitions Introduction What Is Intelligence? How Behavioral Plasticity Helps Dealing with Environmental Changes? Intelligence as Alternative to Natural Selection When Intelligence Is More Important than Natural Selection? Can Plastic Behaviors Promote Evolutionary Diversification? Genetic Assimilation Conclusion Cross-References References Intention Intentional Stance Interactive Decision-Making Interactive Language Development Synonyms Introduction Evolution-Based Theories Stages of Language Development Child-Directed Speech (CSD) Conclusion Cross-References References Interbirth Interval Interbirth Interval (IBI) Interbreeding Interbrood Conflict Intercourse Intercourse Sexual Orientation Interdependence Interdisciplinarity Interference Synonyms Definition Introduction The Most Important Phenomena in Classical Interference Research Retroactive Interference Proactive Interference Output Interference Conclusion Cross-References References Interference Effect Intergenerational Language Transmission Intergenerational Relations Intergenerational Transmission of Violence Intergroup Aggression Intergroup Bias Intergroup Competition Intergroup Conflict Intergroup Killing Intergroup Killing, Between-Group Killing Interindividual Male Gamete Rivalry in Oocyte Fertilization Interlocus Sexual Conflict Internal Internal Status Hierarchy Internal Working Model International Brides Internet Brides Internet Questionnaire Internet Survey Interparental Conflict Interpersonal Aggression Interpersonal Perception Interpersonal Rejection Interpersonal Relationships Interpersonal Violence Interposition Interpretation About One´s Competence and Aversions of Certain Living Organisms Interpretations Interpreting Results of Psychological Studies Introduction Interpreting Results Overview t-tests Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Conclusion References Intersexual Competition Intersexual Deception Intersexual Negative Inducements Intersexual Relations Intersexual Selection Intersexual Strategic Interference Interstimulus Interval Definition Introduction Experimental Research on Interstimulus Interval Conclusion Cross-References References Interstitial Cell-Stimulating Hormone Interview Intimate Partner Homicide Intimate Partner Sexual Violence Intimate Partner Violence Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Intimate Terrorism Intrabrood Conflict Intragroup Competition Intragroup Conflict Intragroup Cooperation Intragroup Killing Intragroup Killing, Within-Group Killing Intralocus Sexual Conflict Synonyms Definition Introduction An Empirical Example Consequences and Outcomes of IaSC The Maintenance of Genetic Variation for Fitness Sex-Chromosome Evolution Sexual Dimorphism The Tragedy of the Commons Same-Sex Sexual Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Intralocus Sexual Conflict Across the Genome Introduction Sex Chromosomes or Autosomes: Model Predictions Organelles Are Special The Genomic Legacy of Sexual Conflict Conclusion Cross-References References Intra-Sex Sexual Behavior Intrasexual Aggression Intrasexual Competition Intra-sexual Competition Intrasexual Competition Between Females References Intrasexual Homicide Intrasexual Killing Intrasexual Male Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Direct Intrasexual Male Competition Contest Competition Dominance Hierarchies Indirect Intrasexual Male Competition Sperm Competition and Mate Guarding Endurance Rivalry Alternative Reproductive Tactics Intrasexual Male Competition in the Context of Total Sexual Selection Intrasexual Male Competition in Humans Direct Intrasexual Male Competition Indirect Intrasexual Male Competition Conclusion Cross-References References Intrasexual Rivalry Intrasexual Rivalry Among Men Synonyms Definition Introduction Intrasexual Rivalry in Humans Noncombative Tactics Male Intrasexual Aggression Collective Male Aggression Adaptive Physiology for Competition Testosterone and Men´s Intrasexual Rivalry Contextual Influence on Men´s Competition Conclusion Cross-References References Intrasexual Rivalry Among Women Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Physically Violent Competition Verbal Derogation of Attractiveness, Promiscuity, and Other Components of Mate-Value Indirect (Also ``Social´´ and ``Relational´´) Aggression Ovulatory Shifts in Women´s Intrasexual Competition Influence of Mate Scarcity on Women´s Intrasexual Rivalry Conclusion Cross-References References Intrasexual Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Competition for Mates, Available and Otherwise Female-Female Competition Male-Male Competition Sperm Competition A Note on Homicide Conclusion Cross-References References Intra-sexual Signaling Intrasexual Violence Among Women Intrasexual Violence and Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Male Intrasexual Violence and Aggression Consideration of Sex Role Evolution Mating System can Predict Strength of Intrasexual Selection The Relationship between Sex Ratios and Violence Intrasexual Violence and Aggression in Women Conclusions Cross-References References Intraspecific Comparisons Intrauterine Insemination Intromission Intuitive Morality Invasion Investment in More Certain Kin Investment Versus Future Payoff Synonyms Definition Introduction Mating Versus Parental Investment Quality Versus Quantity of Offspring Cooperation Conclusion Cross-References References IPD IQ Iron Deficiency Iron-Deficiency Anemia Iron-Poor Blood Synonyms Definition Introduction Fighting Infection Safety of Iron Supplements Conclusion Cross-References References Irrational Fears Isolation Is-Ought Problem Issues Associated with Not Having Intimate Bonds with One´s Relatives Issues Related to Adolescent Development Item Manipulation Iterated Prisoner´s Dilemma Model Synonyms Definition Introduction Iterated Prisoner´s Dilemmas Notable Characteristics of Prisoner´s Dilemmas Modeling Social Evolution with Iterated Prisoner´s Dilemma Games Tit for Tat The Evolution of Nicer Forms of Cooperation Conclusion Cross-References References Iteroparity Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Models Conclusion Cross-References References J Jack Kevorkian Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Jackals Jamaican Symmetry Project Janet Hyde (1984) Janet Hyde (1986) Synonyms Definition Introduction Type of Aggression Method of Measurement Study Design Developmental Effects Conclusion Cross-References References Janet Hyde (2005) Janet Hyde (2014) Jay Belsky Synonyms Definition Introduction Life History Theory Human Development Conclusion Cross-References References Jealousy Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual and Emotional Jealousy Siblings Rivals Friends and Peers Limitations to Jealousy Research Conclusion Cross-References References Jealousy and Infidelity Synonyms Definition Introduction Jealousy My Sex, Partner´s Sex, or Rival´s Sex: Three Main Explanations of Differences in Sexual/Emotional Jealousy Infidelity Infidelity as Sexual Intercourse Infidelity as Extradyadic Sexual Activity Infidelity as Emotional Betrayal Prevalence of Infidelity Correlates of Infidelity and Jealousy Individual Factors Relationship Factors Conclusion Cross-References References Jealousy: Developmental Trajectory Introduction Jealousy in Infancy Jealousy in Childhood and Early Adolescence Jealousy in Late Adolescence and Adulthood Jealousy in Late Adulthood Conclusion Cross-References References Jealousy: Psychiatric Diagnosis Synonyms Introduction Delusional Disorder-Jealous Type Prevalence of Delusional Disorder-Jealous Type Other DSM-5 Diagnoses Conclusion Cross-References References Jean-Baptiste Chevalier de Lamarck Synonyms Definition Introduction The Chevalier de Lamarck A New Philosophy on Life The Transmutation of Species Doctrine Conclusion Cross-References References Jerome H. Barkow Definition Introduction Private Life Academic Education Contributions to Evolutionary Psychology Fieldwork Contributions Links with Social-Cultural Anthropology Links with Extraterrestrial Intelligences References JMS Joanne Raio, Joannis Raii [Lat.] John & Leda John Bowlby Synonyms Definition Introduction Early Academic Training Professional Career and Scientific Philosophy Contributions to Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References John Bowlby and Attachment Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction The Origin of Attachment Theory Basic Tenets of Attachment Theory Conclusion Cross-References References John Bowlby: Pioneer of Attachment Theory Definition Introduction Childhood and Education: Development of an Interest in Close Relationships with Caregivers and Effects of Early Separations Bowlby and Psychoanalysis: A Complicated and Conflicted Relationship Scientific Work and Collaborations: Scientific Evidence for the Importance of Close Relationships with Caregivers, Negative Ef... The WHO Report and the Seminar Group: Developing a Theory of Attachment Based on Evolutionary Theory and Ethology, Cybernetics... Research Immediately Following in the Footsteps of Bowlby: Individual Differences in Attachment Conclusions Cross-References References John Hartung (1995) Love Thy Neighbor Synonyms Definition Introduction Intergroup Dynamics The Biology of Morality Who Is Thy Neighbor? Religious Justification Realistic Conflict Conclusion Cross-References References John Manning Synonyms Definitions Introduction Sex and Symmetry Digit Ratio (2D:4D) Conclusion Cross-References References John Maynard Smith Synonyms Definition Introduction Major Contributions and Phenomena of Interest Influence on Evolutionary Biology and Behavioral Science Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References John Ray Synonyms Life Natural Theology Wilkins and Linguistics Species and Systematics Influence Cross-References References John Tooby John Turner Definition Introduction Career and Contributions Conclusion Cross-References References John Watson Synonyms Definition Introduction His Personal Life The Precursors The Beginnings of His Career: The Birth of Behaviorism Watson´s Career After 1913 From Animals to Humans Organization of Behavior Reflexes and Habits On Environmentalism Application of the Principles of Behaviorism on Child Rearing Watson and Advertising Watson on Psychopathology Watson as a Person Conclusion Cross-References References John Wray Joint Activation of Derived and Inceptive Memories Joint Family Joint Intentionality Jokes Joking Jonathan Haidt Synonyms Definition Introduction The Social Intuitionist Model Moral Disgust and Elevation Moral Foundations Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Jonathan Haidt´s The Righteous Mind Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-References References Joseph Henrich Definition Introduction Cultural Evolution Culture-Gene Coevolution Cognition and Culture Prestige Credibility Displays Religion WEIRD Societies Conclusion Cross-References References Joseph Henrich on Religion Synonyms Definition Introduction Moralizing High Gods Credibility-Enhancing Displays Conclusion Cross-References References Journalist Judgment and Decision-Making Evolutionary Theory and the Currency of JDM Ecological Rationality and Mechanisms of Decision-Making Applying Evolutionary Theory to JDM Problems Cross-References References Judgment of Cheating Judith Jarvis Thomson Synonyms Definition Introduction Research Conclusion Cross-References References Judith Rich Harris Introduction Parental Power: A ``Cherished Culture Myth´´ Genes and Peers The Mystery of Human Individuality The Modular Mind Harris´s Legacy Cross-References References Just So Stories References Justice Juvenility K K Strategy Kellogg Chimpanzee Study, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Rationale and Goals Study and Findings Conclusion Cross-References References Kellogg Study Kenyanthropus K-Factor (Figueredo) Synonyms Definition Life History Theory Individual Variability K-Scales Critique Conclusion Cross-References References Killer Killer Whale Life History Definition Introduction Reproduction Growth Survival Conclusion References Killing Kin Kin Altruism Kin Bias Kin Detection Kin Detection by Odor Synonyms Definition Introduction Methods of Kin Detection Detection of Kin Using Odor Differential Behavior Resulting From Kin Identification Using Odor Kin Detection Outside the Laboratory Conclusion Cross-References References Kin Detection System Kin Discrimination Kin Elders Encourage Youth to Cooperate Synonyms Definition Introduction Context: Kinship and Cooperativeness Context: Kinship, Cooperativeness, and Related Factors Context: Kinship, Cooperativeness, and Contradiction Conclusion References Kin Interest in Mating Relationships Definition Introduction The Evolution of Human Mate Choice Evolutionary Conflict Between Parents and Their Offspring Evolutionary Parent-Offspring Conflict over Mate Choice Indirect Conflict Over Mate Choice Interest of Other Kin in Mate Choice Conclusion Cross-References References Kin Recognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Direct and Indirect Kin Recognition Cues Conclusion Cross-References References Kin Recognition and Classification in Humans Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Do We Feel and Behave This Way Toward Related Individuals? How Do Individuals Recognize Their Kin? Recognition Cues Contextual Cues Phenotypic Cues The Heuristic Process of Kin Recognition Recognition of Individuals from Contextual Cues Recognition of Individuals from Phenotypic Cues Empirical Support of Kin Recognition Human Kin Detection System Conclusion Cross-References References Kin Recognition Mechanisms Kin Relations Kin Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction: History and the Underlying Logic of Kin Selection William Hamilton and Kin Selection Kin Selection, Hamilton´s Rule, and Inclusive Fitness Inclusive Fitness Versus Neighbor Modulated Fitness Criticism of Kin Selection, and General Versus Streamlined Models Kin Selection Versus Group Selection Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Kin Selection Hypothesis Synonyms Introduction Homosexuality: An Evolutionary Paradox The Kin Selection Hypothesis Empirical Tests of the Hypothesis Evidence of Adaptive Design in the Avuncular Cognition of Samoan fa´afafine Development of Elevated Kin-Directed Altruism The Adaptive Feminine Phenotype Model Limitations Conclusion Cross-References References Kin Selection Hypothesis for Male Androphilia Kin Selection Hypothesis for Male Homosexuality Kin Selection Theory Kin Selective Suicide Synonyms Definition Introduction Altruistic Suicide: From Puzzle to Redefinition Conclusion Cross-References References Kin System Kin Term System Kin Terminology Kin Terms Kin Vocabulary Kin-Altruistic Behaviour Kin-Cue Manipulation Kinderschema Kin-Directed Behavior Kindling Synonyms Definition Introduction The Kindling Phenomenon Demonstrated Experimentally Conclusion Cross-References References Kinesics Kinks Kin-Recognition Kinship Kinship and Cortisol in Caribbean Village (Flinn et al., 2005) Synonyms Definition Introduction The Stress Response Stress and the Family Conclusion Cross-References References Kinship and Emotional Closeness Synonyms Definitions Introduction Contributions of Kinship Emotional Closeness and Kinship Factors that Impact Emotional Closeness and Kinship Recent Trends in Kinship Patterns and Care Social Programs, Family Policies, and Kinship Future and Limitations of Kinship Research Conclusion Cross-References References Kinship Distinctions According to Generation Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-References References Kinship Distinctions According to Sex Synonyms Definition Introduction Discussion Cross-References References Kinship Estimator Kinship Index Kinship Is Central to Self-Concept Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Identity Theory Kinship Modern Family Conclusion Cross-References References Kinship Psychology Manipulations Synonyms Definition Introduction Theory and Evidence for Kinship Psychology Manipulations and Suicide Terrorism Conclusion Cross-References References Kinship Universals Kissing Synonyms Definition Introduction Romantic Kissing: Theory and Data Conclusions Cross-References References Knowledge Enrichment Kohlberg´s Rationalistic Theory K-SF-42 L Laceration Lachrymation Lack Clutch Size Lack of Respect Lacrimation Lactation Lactose Intolerance Definition Introduction Diagnosis Treatment Biological Details History Conclusion References Lakatosian Philosophy of Science Lamarckism Landscape Aesthetics Landscape Preferences Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Landscape Preferences Sociocultural Perspectives on Landscape Preference An Evolutionary Psychology Perspective Landscape Preference Factors Conclusion Cross-References References Landscape Preferences: Climate and Weather Introduction Landscapes, Climate, and Weather Weather and Climate on the African Savanna Causal Mechanisms Conclusion Cross-References References Language Language Acquisition Synonyms Definition Introduction What Evolved? Nativism Behaviorism Frequency Effects Priming Social Constructivism Discriminating Abilities Facial Expressions Prelinguistic Gestures Prelinguistic Vocalizations Infant-Directed Speech (IDS) Contingency Functionalism Socioemotional Approach Conclusion Cross-References References Language Acquisition Device Language Acquisition in Infants and Toddlers Synonyms Definition Introduction Language Acquisition Milestones How Do Infants Learn Language? Language Acquisition and Language Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References Language Acquisition in the Home Synonyms Definition Introduction A Developmental Perspective on Child Language and Literacy Acquisition at Home Factors Affecting Home Language Acquisition Environment and Outcome The Role of Parental Involvement in Language Acquisition at Home Conclusion Cross-References References Language Acquisition Outside the Home Synonyms Definition Introduction Views of Acquisition Current Fields of Research Conclusion Cross-References References Language and Economic Cooperation Synonyms Definition Introduction Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis Language, Culture, and Cognition Linguistic Features and Cooperation Terms of Address Pronouns Personal Pronouns Pronoun Drop Further Research for LRH and Cooperation Conclusion Cross-References References Language and Handedness Synonyms Definitions Introduction Genetic Models Multiple Genes, Multiple Circuits Evolutionary Aspects Conclusion Cross-References References Language Deficits Language Development Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Adaptiveness of Communication Specialization Development Social Support Communication and Language in Human Infants Communicating Through Gaze, Gestures, and Emotions Following Gaze Understanding and Producing Gestures Understanding Others´ Emotions and Behaviors The World of Language: Communicating Through Sounds, Words, and Sentences Sounds and Intonation Patterns Understanding and Producing Words and Sentences Supportive Role of Caregivers Diversity in Language Input Temporal Contingency Infant-Directed Speech Gestures and ``Motionese´´ Increasing Language Demands Language Functions in Early Childhood Speech to Regulate Behaviors and Emotions Decontextualized Speech and Narratives: Time and Space Travel Language in Imagination and Pretend Play Relationships with Teachers and Peers Role of Educators: Language in Educational Settings Conclusion Cross-References References Language Development in Formal and Informal Educational Contexts Language Disorders Language Disturbances Language Dysfunction Synonyms Definition Introduction Aphasia Language Disorders Following Right Hemisphere Damage Brain Plasticity for Language Language Deterioration in Dementia Does Language Decline with Aging in Cognitively Healthy Persons? Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Language Evolution Language Impairments Language Instinct Language Instinct, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Refuting Misconceptions About Language Innateness of Language The Universal Sequence Critical Periods Cross-References References Language Learning Language Modularity Synonyms Definition Introduction Fodor´s Modularity of Mind Reconceptualizing Modularity Conclusion Cross-References References Language Origins and Evolution Language Stages Large-Scale Cooperation Largest Homo Brain Synonyms Definition Introduction Variations of Homo What Influences Brain Size? Brain Size and Intelligence Conclusion Cross-References References Laryngeal Descent Synonyms Definition Introduction History Development Adaptive Function Conclusion Cross-References References Larynx Lashing Last Male Advantage Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Last Male Precedence Lateral Geniculate Complex Lateral Geniculate Nucleus Definition Synonyms Introduction Basic Anatomical Organization Three Parallel Cortical Projection Systems Functional Organization Cortical Influences on LGN Cross-References Conclusion References Laughter Law of Effect Leadership Leadership vs. Followership Leading Learnability Learned Helplessness from an Evolutionary Mismatch Perspective Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptive Functions of Helplessness Helplessness in an Evolutionary Mismatched Environment Conclusion Cross-References References Learned Irrelevance Learner-Centered Education Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction Orton-Gillingham Method Neurological Aspects of Learning Disabilities Learning Disabilities in Grade School Learning Disability in College Conclusion Cross-References References Learning Curve Synonyms Definition Introduction Development of the Concept and First Experiments Reflections from Contemporary Uses in Research Use of the Term in Colloquial Language: The ``Steep Learning Curve´´ Conclusion Cross-References References Learning Disorder Learning Graph Learning Process Learning Through Associations Learning Versus Imitation Synonyms Definition Introduction Innovation in Young Children Imitation and Overimitation Conclusion Cross-References References Leda Cosmides Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (Founders of Evolutionary Psychology) Synonyms Definition Introduction Meet Cute The Ontogeny of Evolutionary Psychology Research Activities, Deep and Wide Cross-References References Leech Leftist Left-of-Center Left-Right Differences Left-Wing Lekking Synonyms Definition Introduction Lek Evolution Sexual Selection and the Lek Paradox Conclusion Cross-References References Leks and Choruses Synonyms Definitions Introduction Defining Leks The Evolution of Leks Taxonomic Overview Leks and Female Choice The Lek Paradox Conclusions Cross-References References Length Lesbianism Lesser-Known Theories of Homosexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptationist Hypotheses By-Product Hypotheses Dysfunction Hypotheses Conclusion Cross-References References Lethal Aggression Lethal Conflict Lethal Intrasexual Competition Lethal Raiding Lethal Violence Lev Vygotsky Definition Introduction Main Ideas and Concepts Sign Operation The Sociogenetic Law The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Ontogenesis of Verbal Thinking Egocentric Speech Inner Speech and Semantic Dynamics Conclusion Cross-References References Level of Grandparental Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Paternity Uncertainty Sex-Specific Reproductive Strategies Preferential Investment in More Certain Kin Reproductive Value Conclusion Cross-References References Levels of Explanation Lever Box Lexicon LGB Victimization LGBTQ+ Identity Liberal Liberty Life Cycle Life Expectancy Life Expectancy and Reproduction Synonyms Introduction The Pleiotropic View of Senescence The Selfish Gene The Disposable Soma Life History Theory Experimental and Empirical Validation Conclusion Cross-References References Life Expectancy in Hunter-Gatherers Synonyms Definition Introduction Specifics of Hunter-Gatherer Lifespan Does Life Expectancy Among Hunter-Gatherers Represent Humans´ Evolved Lifespan? Conclusion Cross-References References Life History Life History Model of Psychopathology Synonyms Definition Introduction Life History and Psychopathology Conclusion Cross-References References Life History Strategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Life History Strategies Ecological Conditions Individual Differences in Environmental Sensitivity Influences on Key Life History Domains Somatic Development Mating Parenting Influences on Other Domains Risk-Taking Personality Psychopathology Conclusion Cross-References References Life History Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Ecology Fundamental Tradeoffs Cost-Benefit Analysis Environmental Harshness and Unpredictability Discounting of Future Returns Life History Strategies Clinical Applications Conclusions Cross-References References Life History Theory and Rape Synonyms Definition Introduction The Role of Life History Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Life History Tradeoffs Life of Charles Darwin Synonyms Definition Introduction Early Years and Education The Voyage of the Beagle Darwin´s Relationship with FitzRoy The Origin of the Origin of Species Back in England Marriage to Emma and Family Life Back to Evolution Friends and Allies Publication and Reception of Origin Life After Origin Sex and Emotions: Darwin´s Follow-Up Books on Evolution Darwin´s Theory Misused Darwin´s Latter Years Conclusion References Life Satisfaction Lifespan Lifetime Reproductive Success Likelihood of Conception Limited Dispersal Limited Reproductive Fitness Limited Reproductive Potential Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Selection Bateman´s Principle Strategic Pluralism Theory Limiting Factors of Reproductive Potential Conclusion Cross-References References Lineage Linear Grammar Linearity Linguistic Development Linguistic Evolution Synonyms Definition Introduction Language Origin When Did Language Emerge? Theories of Protolanguage Biological Language Evolution Brain Size Speech Production Cooperation Imitation Learning Cultural Language Evolution Language Change as an Evolutionary Process Emergent Languages Gene-Culture Coevolution Conclusion Cross-References References Linguistic Fossils Linguistic Nativism Linguistic Relativism Linguistics Literature Lithic Technology Little Albert Synonyms Definition Introduction The Conditions Surrounding the Experiment The Experiment Who Was Albert B? Ethical Concerns Conclusion References Littlebrain Living and Dying Living in Groups Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is a Group? Is There an Optimal Group Size? How Dynamic Is a Group? Different Types of Group Living Bases for a Functioning Group and Rank Order Evolutionary Causes Behind Group Living Benefits and Costs with Group Living Important Consequences of Group Living for Cultural Development Conclusion Cross-References References Local Mate Competition Local Sex Ratio Synonyms Definition Introduction Changing Local Sex Ratio by Genotype at Fertilization (GSD) Controlling of Local Sex Ratio in the Parasitic Wasp Nasonia vitripennis Changing Local Sex Ratio by Environmental Factors (ESD) Influence of Latitude and Water Temperature on the Atlantic Silverside (Menidia menidia) Temperature-Sensitive Sex Determination in Emys orbicularis Changing Local Sex Ratio After Birth and Partial Development Brood Reduction and Sex-Biased Provisioning in the Zebra Finch and Crimson Rosella Impact on Local Sex Ratio by Experienced Environmental Factors Conclusion Cross-References References Local Sexual Practice Synonyms Definition Norms and Local Sexual Practice Life History Theory and Individual´s Sexual Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Localization of Memory Substrates Localized Damage Locomotion Logic Game Loneliness in Modern Life Synonyms Definition Introduction Loneliness as an Individual Difference Gender and Loneliness Age and Loneliness Loneliness as a Chronic Condition Antidotes to Loneliness Loneliness in Evolutionary Beginnings An Ultrasocial Species The Heritability of Loneliness Loneliness and Attachment Loneliness Across Cultures Loneliness in the Digital Age Loneliness and the Internet Loneliness and Online Communication Loneliness and Social Networking Sites Competing Models of ICT Use and Loneliness Conclusion Cross-References References Longevity Long-Term Growth Rate Long-Term Mating Long-Term Mating Strategy Long-Term Memory Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolution of Long-Term Memory Through Time Conclusion Cross-References References Long-Term Partnership Long-Term Potentiation Definition Introduction Properties of Long-Term Potentiation Conclusion Cross-References References Long-Term Storage Long-Term Store Loop Variant, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Loop Variant Conclusion Cross-References References Loser Effects Loss of Conceptus Low Birthweight and Preterm Infants Synonyms Definition Introduction Interaction Between Mothers and Low Birthweight or Preterm Infants Effects of Remediation Conclusions Cross-References References Low Libido, Female Sexual Arousal Disorder Low Sexual Desire Low Social Status Low Weight Lower Classes Lowering Partner Standards in a Short-Term Mating Context Synonyms Definition Introduction Mating Strategies Global Standards for Long-Term Partners Men´s Standards for Short-Term Partners Women´s Standards for Short-Term Partners Conclusion Cross-References References Low-Quality Fathering Low-Status Males Loyalty Luring Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Remating When There Are Existing Children The Single Mother´s Advantage Preliminary Support for the ``Luring´´ Hypothesis Future Directions Conclusion Cross-References References Luteinizing Hormone Synonyms Definition Introduction Biochemical Profile of LH LH Isoforms Basic Reproductive Function Indirect-Reproductive Adaptive Functions Indirect Immune Function Areas of Future Inquiry Cross-References References Lutrophin Lutropin Lying M Machiavellian Intelligence Machiavellian Intelligence Hypothesis Mail-Order Brides Synonyms Definition Introduction The Modern Mail-Order Bride Industry Recent Research on Mail-Order Bride Mating Strategies Mail-Order Brides and Domestic Violence Conclusion Cross-References References Maintaining Rank in Dominance Hierarchy Major Depression Major Depressive Disorder Major Hemisphere Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Makeup Making Love Making the Best of a Bad Job Synonyms Definition Introduction Something Is Better than Nothing Not ``Bad,´´ Just Efficient Conclusion Cross-References References Maladaptation Maladaptations Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Maladaptations Health Significance of Maladaptation Psychosocial Relevance of Maladaptation Evolutionary Significance of Maladaptation Conclusion Cross-References References Maladaptive Maladaptive By-Product Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Suicide as an Adaptive or Maladaptive Behavior Honor Killings as Maladaptive Behavior Adoption Conclusion Cross-References References Male Adaptations that Facilitate Success in War Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Perspectives on Adaptive Problems Posed by Warfare Nonhuman Evidence Human Evidence The Male Warrior Hypothesis Research Support for the Male Warrior Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Male Adaptations to Assess Fighting Ability Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolutionary Function of Fighting Ability Assessment Why Do Nonhuman Animals Assess Fighting Ability? Are Humans Likely to Have Fighting Ability Assessment Mechanisms? Adaptations for Assessing Fighting Ability Visual Inspection of the Body How Could One See Fighting Ability in the Body? Can Humans Visually Assess Fighting Ability? What Are the Cues of Fighting Ability in the Body that Are Being Estimated? Is the Visual Assessment of Fighting Ability More Accurate on Male Targets? Visual Inspection of the Face How Could One See Fighting Ability in the Face? Can Humans Visually Assess Fighting Ability From the Face? What Are the Cues of Fighting Ability in the Face? Is the Visual Assessment of Fighting Ability More Accurate on Male Targets? Cues of Fighting Ability in the Voice Can Humans Assess Fighting Ability From the Voice? What Are the Cues of Fighting Ability in the Voice? Self-Assessment of Formidability Future Research: Aggression as Assessment Conclusion Cross-References References Male Aggression Male Battles Male Bonding Male Coalitional Aggression Male Coalitional Psychology Male Coalitions for Hunting Synonyms Definition Introduction Physical Capabilities for Hunting Adaptations for Hunting Risk-Taking Propensity Conclusion Cross-References References Male Counter Strategies to Cyclic Shifts Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Interest Jealousy and Mate Retention Behavior The Challenge Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Male Defense Male Detection of Deception References Male Display Male Dominance Male Dominance Hierarchies References Male Friendship Synonyms Definition References Male Guarding Male Homicide Victims Male Intrasexual Competition Male Intra-sexual Competition Male Intrasexual Homicide Male Mate Choice Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Strategies Theory Physical Attractiveness Age Strategy Change Conclusion Cross-References References Male Mating Competition Male Offenders Male Ornamentation Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Dimorphism in Male Ornamentation Among Anthropoid Primates Sexual Selection, Mating Systems, and Male Badges of Status Social Group Sizes, Social Organizations, and Male Ornaments Sexual Selection and Men´s Beardedness as an Ornamental Badge of Status Conclusion Cross-References References Male Perception of Cycle-Related Fluctuations in Women´s Attractiveness Synonyms Definitions Introduction Cyclic Change in Women´s Appearance Cyclic Changes in Behavior Methodological Considerations Evolutionary Interpretations Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Male Preferences Male Protection Synonyms Definition Introduction Male Protection for Females Male Protection from Males Conclusion Cross-References References Male Provision Male Prudence and Sperm Limits Synonyms Definition Introduction Ejaculatory and Copulatory Adjustment Ejaculate Production Is Costly Extrinsic Factors Affect Ejaculate Investment Across Taxa Ejaculatory Capacity in Humans Evidence of Ejaculate Adjustment in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Male Qualities and Likelihood of Orgasm Synonyms Definition Introduction Mate-Choice Hypotheses of Female Orgasm Mate-Choice Traits that Predict Orgasm Likelihood Sire-Choice Pair-Bonding Alternative Considerations Male Sexual Behavior Conclusion References Male Reproductive Variance Synonyms Definition Introduction Coevolution with Parental Investment/Care Coevolution with Mating Systems Consequences of Variation in Male Reproductive Success Conclusion Cross-References References Male Safety Male Sexual Coercion Male Sexual Jealousy Male Sexual Jealousy to Deter Partner Infidelity Synonyms Definition Introduction The Costs of Infidelity Studies of Modern Humans Competing Explanations Other Means of Ensuring Paternity Conclusion Cross-References References Male Social Dominance Male Status Male Strategies Male Victims Male Violence Male Warrior Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Support for the Male Warrior Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Male Warrior Psychology Male Wrongful Discrimination Male/Female Male-Male Male-Male Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Male-Male Competition in Early Development Physical Features in Competition Competition in Sports Hormonal Influences Conclusion Cross-References References Male-Male Competition for Resources Male-Male Competition or Male Provisioning? Synonyms Definition Introduction Life History and Socioecology Shape How Men Choose Between Competition and Provisioning Big Game Hunting: Competition, Showing-Off, and/or Provisioning? Synthesis and Conclusion Cross-References References Male-Male Contest Male-Male Cooperation Male-Male Strategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Forms of Male-Male Competition Conclusion Cross-References References Maleness Male-Provisioning Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Provisioning Does Not Require Hunting and Hunting Does Not Require Provisioning Controversy/Alternative Views Determinants of Male Parental Investment Conclusion Cross-References References Males and Crime Male-Warrior Hypothesis Malicious Joy Malleability Malthus on Population Synonyms Definition Introduction Historical Context Malthus´ Theory and Implications Influence on Biology: First Law of Nature Equal Fitness Paradigm Malthus´ Influence on Society ``Neo-Malthusians´´ Versus ``Cornucopians´´ Malthus, Darwin, and Boserup Conclusion Current Population Trajectories The (Im)Perfectibility of Humans Alternatives to the Growth Paradigm Cross-References References Malthusian Growth Mammalian Ear Evolution Mammalian Ear, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Eutherian Mammalian Ear Motor Protein Prestin Comparative Research Conclusion References Man Man with Backpack Mandeb Strait Manipulation Synonyms Definition Introduction Mate Retention in Marriage Factors Associated with Romantic Partner Manipulation Dark Triad and Intersexual Negative Inducements Faking Orgasm to Manipulate a Partner Intimate Partner Violence as a Costly Mate Retention Tactic Conclusion Cross-References References Manipulation and Dishonest Signals Synonyms Definition Introduction Dishonest Signals in Nature Contested Definitions Stability and Dynamics Conclusions Cross-References References Manipulation by Others Synonyms Definition Introduction Theories and Evidence for Suicide Terrorism as Manipulation by Others Conclusion Cross-References References Manipulative Use of Kin Terminology Definitions Introduction Manipulation of Dyadic Bonds Manipulation of Ideological Communities Conclusions Cross-References References Man-Made Items Marc Bekoff Synonyms Definition Introduction About the Author Animal Emotions Cognitive Ethology Conclusion Cross-References References Margaret Profet Margie Profet Synonyms Definition Introduction Background Pregnancy Sickness Allergies Menstruation Conclusion Cross-References References Margo Wilson Maria Montessori Definition Introduction Evolution and the Spiritual Embryo Evolution, Ecology, and the ``Cosmic Plan´´ Scientific Pedagogy Conclusion References Marital Status Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Background Patterns of Violence Conclusion Cross-References References Marital Status and Infanticide Synonyms Definition Introduction Historical Records Contemporary Cross-National Patterns Patterns in Small-Scale Societies Conclusion Cross-References References Mariticide Marketing Influences Marriage Synonyms Definition Introduction Marriage Rates Mate Choice Marital Satisfaction and Stability Sex in Marriage Jealousy Child Rearing Cultural Factors Conclusion Cross-References References Marriage Transaction Martial Arts Martin Daly Martin Daly and Margo Wilson (Founders of Evolutionary Psychology) Synonyms Definition Introduction Margo Wilson: Early Years in Northern Climes Martin Daly: From Toronto to Algeria and Back Daly and Wilson: A First Book with Longevity Patterns of Homicide and the Birth of a Society Maturation and Internationalization of the New Discipline Conclusion Cross-References References Martin Muller Definition Introduction Kasiisi Project and Kibale Chimpanzee Project Recent Research Conclusion Cross-References References Martyrdom Maryanne Fisher Synonyms Definition Introduction Women´s Intrasexual Competition Evolutionary Psychology and Popular Culture Evolution´s Empress and the Oxford Handbook Conclusion Cross-References References Masculinity Masculinity and Femininity Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Reproduction and Social Roles in Humans Femininity in Women: Morphology and Maternal Tendencies Masculinity in Men: Morphology and the Masculinity Paradox Conclusion Cross-References References Masquerade Synonyms Definition Introduction How Does Masquerade Work? How Does Masquerade Differ from Crypsis and Batesian Mimicry? Masquerade and Behavior Nonvisual Masquerade How Did Masquerade Evolve? Conclusion Cross-References References Mass Extinction Master Clock Masters and Johnson Definition Introduction Masters and Johnson The Lives of Masters and Johnson Influential Findings, Methodologies, and Publications The Four Stages of the Sexual Response The Treatment of Sexual Dysfunction Conclusion Cross-References References Masturbation Mate Mate Attraction Mate Choice Mate Choice Copying Synonyms Definition Introduction Copying Bias in Social Learning of Preferences Prestige-Biased Learning Effects of Age of Learner Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Choice Criteria Mate Choice Effects Synonyms Definition Introduction Hormonal Contraceptives Disrupt Women´s Mate Preferences Hormonal Contraceptives Disrupt Men´s Mate Preferences The Implications of Women´s Hormonal Contraceptive Use for their Long-Term Relationships Summary Cross-References References Mate Competition Mate Copying Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence for Mate-Choice Copying Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Deprivation Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Mate Desertion Mate Expulsion Marital Satisfaction Frequency of Divorce and Breakups Infidelity and Mate Expulsion Emotional and Sexual Infidelity Forgiveness, or Mate Expulsion Access Emotional and Sexual Access Sexual Conflict Frequency of Sex and Sexual Satisfaction References Mate Guarding Mate Poaching Synonyms Definition Introduction Occurrence and Prevalence Costs Associated with Mate Poaching Reasons to Poach a Mate Personality of Mate Poachers and Those Who Are Poached Targets of Mate Poaching Disguising Mate Poaching Relationships Outcomes Sexual Versus Emotional Mate Poaching Conclusions Cross-References References Mate Preference Copying Mate Preferences Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Do Mate Preferences Evolve? How Do Mate Preferences Evolve? What Do We Know About Human Mate Preferences? What Is Not Known About Mate Preferences? Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Preferences After Having Children Synonyms Definition Introduction Women´s Preferences after Children The Effect of Children on Women´s Mate Value Men´s Mate Preferences after Children The Effect of Children on Men´s Mate Value WEIRD Populations and Researchers, Children, and Mate Preferences Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Quality Mate Quality Bias Mate Rejection Mate Retention Definition Introduction Mate Retention Inventory Mate Retention and Mate Value Mate Retention Across the Ovulatory Cycle Mate Retention and Concurrent Sexual Behaviors Mate Retention and Individual Differences Personality Dimensions Sex Differences Age, Relationship Length, and Parity Attachment Relationship Status and Sociosexuality Coalitional Mate Retention Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Retention After Children Definition Introduction Biparental Care Male Provisioning Male-Male Competition Mate Retention Effort Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Retention and Romantic Attachment Synonyms Definition Introduction Mate Retention and Romantic Attachment Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Retention Behavior Mate Retention Behaviors Mate Retention Strategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Composition of Retention Strategies Differences Between Sexes in the Use of Retention Strategies Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Retention Tactic Synonyms Definition Introduction Tactics of Mate Retention Sex Differences in Use of Mate Retention Tactics Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Selection Mate Selection Criteria Mate Selection Strategy Mate Selection Strategy (Version of Sexy Sons Hypothesis) Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Stealing Mate Value Synonyms Definition Introduction Aspects of Mate Value and Its Variation Mate Value in Mate Choice: Perception and Reflection Sex Differences: What Males and Females Want Sex Differences: What Men and Women Want Mate Value in Social Evolution Mate Value and Mental Evolution: Cognition, Language and Deception Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Value Inflation Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolved Mate Preferences Mate Value Inflation Strategies Physical Enhancements Conspicuous Consumption Mate Value Inflation Through Social Media Consequences of Mate Value Inflation Strategies Conclusion Cross-References References Mate Worth Mate-Choice Copying Material Extrinsic Investments Maternal Abandonment and Maternal-Fetal Conflict Synonyms Definition Introduction Infanticide Postpartum Depression Infant Countermeasures Conclusion Cross-References References Maternal Age Synonyms Definition Introduction Characteristics of Older Mothers Maternal Age and Child Outcomes Maternal Age and Parent Well-Being Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Maternal and Offspring Condition Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Maternal Behavior Maternal Bonding Synonyms Definition Introduction Hormones and Maternal Behavior The Brain and Mother-Infant Bonding The Development of Maternal Behavior The Neural Systems Underlying Mother-Infant Bonding May Provide a Foundation for Other Strong Social Bonds Conclusion References Maternal Caregiving Maternal Competency Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis Maternal Grandmother Invests Most Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Maternal Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Contingent Model of Maternal Investment Empirical Test of the Contingent Model of Maternal Investment Physiological Processes in Maternal Investment Conclusions Cross-References References Maternal Love Maternal Malnourishment Introduction Thrifty Genotype Parent-Offspring Conflict Growth Programming Maternal Malnutrition and Fetal Brain Development Conclusion References Maternal Motivation Maternal Perinatal Association Maternal Responsiveness Maternal Role Synonyms Definition Introduction Tend and Befriend Evolution of Maternal Role Conclusion Cross-References References Maternal Sensitivity Synonyms Definition Introduction Antecedents and Consequences Measurement Intervention Studies Aiming Enhancing Maternal Sensitivity Conclusion Cross-References References Maternal Support Maternal-Embryo Conflict Maternal-Fetal Conflict Synonyms Definition Introduction Parent-Offspring Conflict Terminology How Embryos Manipulate Mothers Hormones and Fetal-Maternal Conflict Maternal-Fetal Conflict and Microchimerism Non-coding RNA and Fetal Maternal Conflict Maternal-Fetal Conflict and Genomic Imprinting How Are Genes Silenced? Genomic Imprinting Is Revealed by Genetic or Epigenetic Accidents Why Genomic Imprinting? An Example of Imprinted Genes Maternal-Fetal Conflict over Implantation Maternal-Fetal Conflict over Spontaneous Abortion hCG and Maternal-Fetal Conflict over Thyroid Function Maternal-Fetal Conflict and Preeclampsia Maternal-Fetal Conflict and Gestational Diabetes Fatal Conflicts Maternal-Fetal Conflict and the Social Brain Diametric Imprinted Gene Disorders Maternal Fetal Conflict and Autophagy Maternal-Fetal Conflict and Cancer Conclusion Cross-References References Mateship Mate-Stealing Mathematical Biology Mating Mating Advantage Mating Aggregation Mating Behavior Mating Competition Mating Effort Mating Market Mating Plug Mating Preferences Mating Prospects of Gang Members Mating Psychology Mating Psychology Manipulation Mating Relationships Mating Rivalry Synonyms Definition Introduction Asymmetric Constraints and Benefits What Are Men Looking for? Women´s Mating Rivalry Men´s Mating Rivalry Local Conditions Influence the Intensity of Mating Rivalry Conclusion References Mating Sabotage Mating Selection Mating Sociometer Mating Strategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Strategies Theory Strategic Pluralism Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Mating Strategy Mating Strategy Equilibria Synonyms Definition Introduction Alternative Strategies Mixed Strategy Conditional Strategies Conclusion Cross-References References Mating Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Low Polygyny Moderate Polygyny High Polygyny Conclusion Cross-References References Mating Tactics Matriarch Matriarchal Matricide Matrigene Matrilateral Bias Matriliny Maturation Maturation Achievement Maturation Versus Enculturation mDNA Meaning (Philosophy) Synonyms Definition Introduction Propositional Meaning Meaning and Intentions Meaning and Conventions The Evolution of Meaning Conclusion Cross-References References Meaning Making and the Self Synonyms Definition Introduction Development of Self and Its Relation to Meaning Making The Body as a Container of the Self Relational Qualities of the Self Mentalization, Meaning-Making, and the Self Operational Processes of the Self Self-Constitution, Self-Manifestation, and Self-Expansion Conclusion Cross-References References Measure of Relatedness Measurement: Categorical Versus Continuous Definition Introduction Measurement of Attachment Categorical or Continuous? Conclusions Cross-References References Measuring Well-Being Synonyms Definition Introduction The Measurement of Well-being Components of Well-Being Conclusion Cross-References References Mechanisms Mechanisms of Altruism Mechanisms to Detect and Punish Cheaters Synonyms Definition Introduction Detection of Cheaters Punishment of Cheaters Conclusion Cross-References References Mechanisms to Prefer Traits in Coalition Members Synonyms Definition Introduction Judging Coalitional Ability Coalitional Contribution and Social Status Preferences for Traits in New Coalition Members Preferences for Masculinity and Risk-Taking Conclusion Cross-References References Mechanosensor Synonyms Definition Introduction Mechanosensors Evolution Status of the Mechanosensors Conclusion References Mechanosensory Molecules Mechanotransduction Process Media Violence Medical Definitions of Death Synonyms Definition Introduction Main Text: Legal Definition of Death Cardiopulmonary Criteria for Death Declaration Brain Death Criteria for Death Declaration Religious Understandings of Death Conclusion Cross-References References Medically Assisted Reproduction Synonyms Definitions Introduction Methods of Treatment Why Use Medically Assisted Reproductive Technology? Risks Associated with ART Ethical Concerns Conclusions Cross-References References Meditation Melancholy Members of Coalition Must Believe They Will Win Synonyms Definitions Introduction Strategic Considerations in Warfare Victory must be Assured Conclusion Cross-References References Memes Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Unusual About Man The New Replicators Survival Value and How Memes Can Replicate Conclusion Cross-References References Memory Memory and Survival Memory Computation Memory Enhanced for Cheaters Versus Non-cheaters Synonyms Definition Introduction Enhanced Memory for Faces of Cheaters? Why Is Source Memory for Cheaters Enhanced? Conclusion Cross-References References Memory for Reputations Men but Not Women Will Have Adaptations for War Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Selection Intrasexual Competition and the Antecedents of Warlike Behaviors in Men Warfare: A Male Affair Conclusion Cross-References References Men in Positions of Power Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Male Dominance? Does Male Dominance Matter? Conclusion References Men Riskier, More Aggressive Synonyms Definition Introduction Male Competition over Mating Opportunities Life-Course Developmental Differences Between Men and Women Socialized Gender Roles Conclusion Cross-References References Men Romantic Partner Choice Men Sexual Partner Selection Men with Poor Mating Prospects Synonyms Definition Introduction Intrasexual Competition Alternative Theories for Demographic Characteristics Inclusive Fitness Conclusion Cross-References References Men´s Aggression Against Women Men´s Egoistic Dominant Acts Synonyms Definition Introduction The Expression of Dominance Among Men Dominance and Reproductive Benefits Conclusion Cross-References References Men´s Mate Preferences Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Foundations for Sex Differences in Human Mate Preferences Aspects of Men´s Mate Preferences Facial Features Body Features Waist-to-Hip Ratio Faithfulness and Paternal Uncertainty Conclusion Cross-References References Men´s Mating Psychology Men´s Short-Term Mating Men´s Short-Term Mating Behaviors Synonyms Definition Introduction Strategies Adaptive Problems Faced by Men Pursuing Short-Term Strategies Partner Number Minimizing Risk and Investment Identifying Sexually Accessible Women Identifying Fertile Women Behaviors Infidelity Hook-Ups Prostitution Sociosexual Orientation Inventory: Behaviors Contextual Influence on Mating Strategies Perceived Effectiveness of Short-Term Strategies Father Absence Life Stage Mate Value Sex Ratio Conclusion Cross-References References Men´s Suspicions of Partner Infidelity and Women´s Defection Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Foundation Parental Investment Theory Cuckoldry and Paternity Uncertainty Partner Infidelity Violence Partner Rape Defection from the Relationship Violence Homicide Conclusion References Men´s Violence Against Female Partners: The Role of Culture Synonyms Definition Introduction Men´s Violence Against Intimate Partners: The Role of Culture Variations in the Prevalence of Men´s IPV Between Countries The Role of Culture in Explaining Men´s Violence Against Intimate Partners Challenges to the Link Between Culture and IPV in the Age of Migration Outlook: A Gender-Inclusive Approach to the Study of IPV in its Cultural Context Cross-References References Menarche Synonyms Definition Introduction Onset, Trends, and Timing of Menarche Heredity Biological Factors Environmental Factors Psychosocial and Physiological Effects of Menarche Attitudes Toward Menarche Conclusion Cross-References References Mendel´s Experiments Synonyms Definition Introduction The Experiments Biological Mechanism Conclusion References Mendel´s Laws Mendelian Inheritance Menopause Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolution of Menopause in Human Females Physiology of Menopause Possible Explanations Why Menopause Has Evolved The Grandmother Hypothesis The By-Product Hypothesis: A Physiological Trade-Off Between Early Fecundity and Longevity The Mother Hypothesis The Absent Father Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Menopause Affords Grandparental Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Menopause as a Kin Selection Adaptation Sessation of Ovulation for Offspring Investment Menstrual Cycle Synonyms Definition Introduction Description of the Normal Menstrual Cycle Estimating the Phases Disruptions of Regularity Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period Hormonal Contraceptives Amenorrhea Psychological Fluctuations Associated with the Menstrual Cycle Motivations Associated with the Ovulatory Phase Motivations Associated with the Luteal Phase Conclusion Cross-References References Menstrual Cycle Changes Menstrual Cycle Phase Menstruation Mental Grammar Mental Illness Mental Imaging Mental Lexicon Mental Map Mental Modularity Mental Processes Mental State Attribution Mentalizing Mental-State Attribution Messaging Meta-analysis of Sex Differences in Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Parental Investment Theory Physical Aggression Relational Aggression Emotion Partner Aggression Role of Hormones Conclusion Cross-References References Metabolic Changes Metabolism Metacognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Approaches to Demonstrating Animal Metacognition Positive Evidence Ambiguous Evidence Controversies About Animal Metacogition Conclusion Cross-References References Metaethical Relativism Metaethics Metamemory Metaphor Metaphor and Analogy Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Metaphysical Freedom Meta-tool Definition Introduction How Widespread Is Meta-tool Use? Anvil Propping Conclusion Cross-References References Method of Successive Approximations Methodological and Phenomenological Narrowness Methodological Pluralism Methodological Relativism Methods and Enduring Impact of Behaviorism Synonyms Definition Introduction Methodology Impact Conclusion Cross-References References Methods of Filicide Synonyms Definition Introduction Methods of Filicide Conclusion Cross-References References Metonymy Mezzosoprano MHC Compatibility Synonyms Definition Introduction Innate and Adaptive Immune System Responses Evolutionary Origins of the MHC MHC-Dependent Mating Human Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Michael A. Woodley of Menie, Yr. Professional Life Background Major Contributions Cognitive Differentiation-Integration Effort Theory The Co-Occurrence Model of Secular Trends in Human Intelligence: General Intelligence Decline The Co-Occurrence Model of Secular Trends in Human Intelligence: Partitioning IQ Change The Social Epistasis Amplification Model Controversies Reaction Times Neurotoxic Pollution Versus Dysgenic Selection The London Conference on Intelligence References Michael Tomasello Synonyms Definition Introduction The Comparative Approach Shared Intentionality Theory A Case Study Conclusion Cross-References References Michelle Scalise Sugiyama Definition Narrative Predators Cultural Variation Extension Conclusion Cross-References References Microbial Defense Microbial Resistance Mid-Cycle Middle Ear Middle Ear First and Second Pharyngeal Arches Middle Ear, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Brief Anatomy of the Middle Ear Stapedius and Tensor Tympani The Oval and Round Windows The Eustachian Tube Evolutionary Status of the Middle Ear Conclusion Cross-References References Migration Milieu Mimesis Mimicry Mimicry, Power, and Influence Mind Modules Mind Perception Mind Reading Mindblindness Definition Introduction Main Text Evolutionary Forces and the Adaptive Problem The Intentional Stance Conclusion Cross-References References Mindfulness Mindreading Mini-K Minimal Obligatory Parental Investment Mirages Mirror Mechanism Mirror Neuron System Mirror Neurons Synonyms Definition Introduction Main Text Basic Properties and Related Functions Existence in Humans Extended Mirror Neuron Network Development Across the Lifespan Role of Experience Evolutionary History Other Capacities that Involve Mirror Neurons Neurorehabilitation Conclusion Cross-References References Mirror Self-Recognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Tests of Mirror Self-Recognition with Apes Tests of Mirror Self-Recognition with Other Primates Tests of Mirror Self-Recognition with Non-primate Species Theoretical Interpretation and Debates About Mirror Self-Recognition Conclusion Cross-References References Mirror System Mirroring Mirth Misanthropic Miscarriage Mise-en-scène Misery Misinterpreted as Cultural Relativism Synonyms Definition Introduction Historical Context of Cultural Relativism Descriptive Cultural Relativism Metaethical Cultural Relativism Misinterpretations Current Social Science Research Strategies Conclusion Cross-References References Mismatch Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Mismatch: Diet Evolutionary Mismatch: Social Groups Evolutionary Mismatch: Education Conclusion Cross-References References Mismatch Between Evolved Morality and Modern World Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Mismatch Specifying T Specifying C Specifying E1 and E2 Conclusion Cross-References References Mismatch Theory Missing Heritability Misuse/Misapplication of Psychological Mechanisms Mitochondrial DNA Synonyms Definition Introduction Function and Inheritance Conclusion References Mixed Languages Moaning Mobbing Mobbing Calling Mobility: Crawling and Walking Synonyms Definition Introduction Historical Considerations Shared Childrearing, Different Practices, and Constraints on Motor Skills Handling and Containing Infants Sleeping and Swaddling Toileting and Dress Expectations and Activities Shape Ways of Moving Expectations Daily Activities Conclusions Cross-References References Modal Action Patterns Model Comparison Modeling Modeling Language Transmission Definition Introduction Cultural Evolution and Language Cultural Transmission Gives Rise to Compositionality Compositionality Depends on Transmission and Communication Cultural Transmission Gives Rise to Semantic Categories Conclusion Cross-References References Modern Human Origins Modern Moral Relativism Synonyms Definition Introduction Defining Moral Relativism Psychological Studies of Folk Moral Judgments Nichols on Moral Psychology and Moral Relativism Conclusion Cross-References References Modern Technology (E.G., IVF) Definition Introduction Assisted Reproductive Technologies in Infertile Patients Assisted Reproduction in Fertile Patients Cross-References References Modern Theories of Language Synonyms Definition Introduction Theories of Language Evolution and Change Language as Product of Biological Adaptation Language as Product of Cultural Transmission Coevolution of Genes and Language How Is Language Learned? Social Shaping Embodied Cognition as Expressed in Gesture and Speech Bootstrapping in Complex Dynamical Systems Usage-Based Learning How Is Language Used? Levels of Processing Incremental Cascaded Processing Interactive Processing Top-Down Processing Predictive Processing Communicative Interaction Conclusion Cross-References References Modern-Day European Union Modification Modified Behavior Towards Conspecifics Mods Modularity of Mind Synonyms Definition Introduction Fodor´s Modularity of Mind Criticisms/Challenges: Skepticism to Fodor´s Proposal of Modularity of Mind Massive Modularity Conclusions Cross-References References Molecular Clock Mollusk Momnesia Monetary Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Overview: Monetary Benefits to Kin Conclusion Cross-References References Monetary Artifacts Monkeys Monoamine Oxidase and Antisocial Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Environment, Evolution, and Antisocial Behavior What are MAOs? Environmental Interactions of MAOs and ASPD Development in Males Adolescents and Children Brain Scans in Males Animal Studies Female Relationship of MAO´s and Antisocial Conclusion Cross-References References Monogamy Synonyms Definition General Considerations Genetic, Hormonal, and Neural Mechanisms Ecological Factors Driving the Evolution of Monogamy Comparative Analyses in Vertebrates Pair-Bonding and Monogamy in Humans References Monotropy Mood Moral Moral Behavior Moral Codes Moral Concerns Synonyms Definition Introduction Review The Reproductive Technology Market Premature and Uneven Uptake of Reproductive Technology Can Government Involvement in `Eugenics´ Be Justified? Conclusion Cross-References References Moral Constructivism Moral Conventionalism Moral Development Moral Dispositions Moral Domains Moral Emotions Synonyms Definition Introduction Grounding Moral Norms Evolved Emotions Moral Emotion Types Conclusion Cross-References References Moral Foundation Moral Foundations Moral Foundations Theory Moral Instincts Synonyms Definition Introduction Culturally Universal Moral Norms Culturally Relative Moral Norms Origins of Instincts to Behave in Moral Ways Origins of Instincts to Behave in Altruistic and Group-Upholding Ways Kin Selection Triggering Kin-Selected Altruistic Instincts Mental Mechanisms and Emotions Supporting Kin-Selected Altruistic Instincts Sympathy and Empathy Group Selection Triggering Group-Selected Altruistic Instincts Mental Mechanisms and Emotions Supporting Group-Upholding Altruistic Instincts Sexual Selection Triggering Sexually Selected Altruistic Instincts Mental Mechanisms and Emotions Supporting Sexually Selected Altruistic Instincts An Integrative Account of the Evolution of Emotional Sources of Altruism Origins of Instincts to Respect Authority Triggering Deferential Instincts Mental Mechanisms and Emotions Supporting Deferential Instincts Origins of Instincts to Behave Fairly Triggering Instincts to Behave Fairly Mental Mechanisms and Emotions Supporting Instincts to Behave Fairly Gratitude Guilt Indignation and Vindictiveness Forgiveness Origins of Instincts to Uphold Purity Imperfections in the Design of Psychological Mechanisms and the Role of Manipulation in the Activation and Evolution of Moral ... Origins of a Sense of Morality Emotional and Rational Aspects of a Sense of Morality The Moral Senses Origins of the Moral Senses Origins of Moral Sentiments About Others Origins of Sense of Moral Obligation Origins of Conscience and a Sense of Guilt Origins of a Sense of Justice Conclusion Cross-References References Moral Instincts and Morality Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Moral Intuitionist Theory Moral Intuitions Moral Language Regulation Synonyms Definition Introduction A Link Between Language and Morality Moral Development Conclusion Cross-References References Moral Philosophy Moral Realism Moral Reasoning Moral Relationships Moral Senses Moral Sentiments Moral Subjectivism Moral Tribes Synonyms Definition Introduction The Origins of Human Morality Coalitional Psychology Moral and Political Tribes Conclusion Cross-References References Moral Values Moralistic Aggression Moralistic Punishment Morality Synonyms Definition Introduction The Empirical and Normative Senses of Morality Moral Behaviors in Nonhuman Species Evolution of Justice Studies on Moral Behavior in Primates Darwinism and Moral Emotions Adam Smith and Morality Conclusion Cross-References References Morality Is Cooperation Synonyms Definition Introduction The Interdependence Hypothesis Morality Improves Cooperation Conclusion Cross-References References Morality of Creating New Life Moralizing Gods and the Rise of Civilization Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Morals Morbid Jealousy Synonyms Definition Introduction The Othello Syndrome Morbid Jealousy and Alcoholism Morbid Jealousy: Social and Evolutionary Significances Morbid Jealousy: Neurobiological Implications Conclusion Cross-References References Morning Sickness Mortality Mortality Rates Mortality Risk Most Perpetrators Are Men Synonyms Definition Introduction Men as the Perpetrators of Homicide Conclusion Cross-References References Most Victims Are Men Synonyms Definitions Introduction Men as the Victims of Homicide Conclusion Cross-References References Mother Hypothesis Mother Tongue Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Monogenesis of Language Is Language Older than Our Species? A More Recent Origin of Language What Was the Mother Tongue Like? Conclusions Cross-References References Mother´s Brain Size Decrease During Pregnancy Synonyms Definition Introduction Causes of Size Decrease Effects of Size Decrease Evolutionary Implications Conclusion Cross-References References Mother´s Function Mother-Child dyad Motherese Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Mother-Fetus Conflict Mother-Infant Attraction Mother-Infant Co-sleeping Mother-Infant Proximity Mothers and Maternal Grandmothers and Childhood Survival Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Motion Parallax Definition Introduction Use of Motion Parallax for Depth Perception in Humans and Nonhuman Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Motivates Punishment Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptationist Approaches Seeking Better Treatment Social Relationships Reputation Offsetting Fitness Differentials Recruiting Labor Multilevel Selection Approaches Punishing Norm Violators Conclusion Cross-References References Motivational States Promoting Survival and Reproduction Motor Aphasia Motor Control Motor Development Mouth-to-Mouth Kissing Movement mtDNA Müller´s Language Hypotheses Synonyms Definition Introduction Bow-wow Theory Ding-Dong Theory Pooh-Pooh Theory Ta-Ta Theory Yo-He-Yo Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Muller´s Theories on Language Evolution Müllerian Association Müllerian Mimicry Synonyms Definitions Introduction A History of the Idea Examples of Müllerian Mimicry The Evolution of Müllerian Mimicry Müller´s Idea About Predators Attacking a Fixed Number of Prey During Learning Evidence That There Is Selection for Signal Similarity Species Differences in Defensive Chemical Concentrations, and Its Consequences for the Evolution of Müllerian Mimicry Müllerian Mimicry and Speciation The Molecules Behind Mimicry Conclusion Cross-References References Multi-cultural Multiculturalism Multilevel Selection Theory Synonyms Definition Multilevel Selection Theory Cross-References References Multilingualism Multiple Mating Multiple Matings Synonyms Definition Introduction Identifying the Alternatives Multiple Mating in Humans: Patterns Multiple Mating in Humans: Selective Pressures and Adaptations Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Multiple Memory Systems Synonyms Definition Introduction Neuroscientific and Cognitive Approach Evolutionary Science Approach Conclusion Cross-References References Murder Synonyms Definition Introduction An Evolutionary Overview of Murder Conclusion Cross-References References Murder by Design Muscle Muscle Conduction Velocity Music Music and Hormones Synonyms Definition Introduction Castrati: male sopranos in opera Hormones in Musicians Studies with Rodents Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Music as Auditory Cheesecake Synonyms Definition Introduction The Pleasure of Music Music: Adaptation or Cultural Creation? The Adaptive Value of Music Conclusion Cross-References References Music as By-Product Music Evolution Musical Protolanguage Synonyms Definition Introduction Modern Versions of the Musical Protolanguage Hypothesis Non-music Models of Protolanguage Conclusion Cross-References References Mutation Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Mutation and Their Health Implications Mutation in Nonhumans Mutations: From the Perspective of Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References Mutation Accumulation Theory Definition Introduction Review Purifying Selection Sources and Rates of De Novo Mutations in Humans Germ-Line Mutations Somatic Mutations The Mutation Load Paradox and Estimates of Human Fitness Loss Due to Germ-Line Mutation Accumulation The Mutation Load Paradox The Consequences of Relaxed Purifying Selection in Industrialized Populations Experimental Evidence for the Effects of Germ-Line Mutation Accumulation on the Fitness of Nonhuman Eukaryotes Insects Yeasts Nematodes Mammals Potential Historical Micro-Evolutionary Manifestations of Germ-Line Mutation Accumulation in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Mutual Grooming Mutual Parental Investment Mutualism Mutualistic Mimicry Myth N Names and Titles Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Narcissism Synonyms Definition Introduction The Narcissist in Context A Selfish Mind: How Does Narcissism Develop? Selfish by Design? Natural Selection and Narcissistic Traits Adaptation or Disorder: Is Narcissism an Advantage? Conclusion Cross-References References Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) Narrative Synonyms Definition Introduction Narrative Structure and Function Narrative, Storytelling, and Fiction as Discrete Phenomena Conclusion Cross-References References Narrowing Birth Canal Synonyms Definition Introduction Implications of Bipedalism Implications of the Birth Canal Conclusion Cross-References References Natal Philopatry Natalism Nativism Synonyms Definition Introduction Key Concepts Evidence for Linguistic Nativism Conclusion Cross-References References Nativist Approach Natural Parenting Natural Selection Definition Introduction Basic Issues Heritable Differences Variation in Heritable Features Cooperation and Competition Constraints on Natural Selection Evolutionary Computation Conclusion Cross-References References Natural Versus Artificial Environments Introduction Natural Environments Artificial Environments Interactions Between Natural and Artificial Environments Conclusion Cross-References References Naturalism Naturalistic Fallacy, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Moral Prescriptions from Evolutionary Principles to Morality Conclusion Cross-References References Naturally Selected Seasonings Nature Nature Effects on Well-Being Nature Versus Nurture Synonyms Definition Introduction Nature Nurture Conclusion: Nature and Nurture Cross-References References Nausea Synonyms Definition Introduction Effects on the Body Toxin Ingestion Pregnancy Motion Sickness Conclusion Cross-References References Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy Navigating Social Relationships Cross-References References Navigational Strategies Neanderthal Man Neanderthals and Humans Synonyms Definition Introduction Interactions with Modern Humans Conclusion References Necrotic Cell Death Need-Based Support Negative Affect Negative Effects of Gossip Negative Frequency-Dependent Selection Negative Postcoital Emotions Negative Punishment Negative Reciprocity Negative Reinforcement Negative School Climate Negative Sexual Imprinting Negativity Engagement Bias Neglect Neighborhood Effects Neonatal Neonatal Brain Size Neonatal Brain/Body Allometry Neonatal Imitation Synonyms Definition Introduction History of Neonatal Imitation Research Replications and Subsequent Theories Mechanisms of Imitation Active Intermodal Mapping Innate Releasing Mechanism Arousal Mirror Neuron System Associative Sequence Learning Functions of Imitation Communication Bonding Breastfeeding No Distinct Function Is the Evidence for Neonatal Imitation Compelling? Conclusion Cross-References References Neonate Neonaticide Neophilia (Antonym) Neophobia Synonyms Definition Introduction The Omnivore´s Dilemma Infants and Neophobia Neophobia and Disgust Conclusion Cross-References References Neoplasm Neo-Whorfianism Nepotism Definition Introduction Issues and Dilemmas Nepotism in Human Society Conclusion Cross-References References Nerve Conduction Velocity Nervousness Nest Abandonment Nest Defense Net Energy Gain Neural Development Neural Mirroring Neural Recognition Systems Neural Structure Neurobiologist Neurobiology of Language Synonyms Definition Introduction Models and Paradigms Molecular Genetics Linguistic Microcircuits Comparative Models Conclusion Cross-References References Neurodiversity Neuroethics Synonyms Definition Introduction Ethical Implications of Neuroscientific Research Social Implication of Neuroscientific Research Legal Implications of Neuroscientific Research Conclusion Cross-References References Neurogenesis Neuroimaging Neurolinguistics Neurological Approach Neurology of Humor Synonyms Definition Introduction Defining Humor Abnormal Humor Processing Pathological Humor Personality and Sex/Gender Differences in Humor Processing The Neural Basis of Humor Real-Time Dynamics of Humor Processing Laughter Pathological Laughing Therapeutic Benefits of Humor and Laughter Conclusion Cross-References References Neuron Proliferation in Humans Neurons Neurons in the Cerebral Cortex Synonyms Definition Introduction The Mammalian Brain Evolution of the Cerebral Cortex Psychological Adaptations of the Cerebral Cortex Conclusion Cross-References References Neurophysiology Neuropsychology Neuroradiology Neuroscience Neuroscience of Language Neuroticism Newborn Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Play Primary Circular Reactions Secondary Circular Reactions Tertiary Circular Reactions Conclusion Cross-References References Newborn Imitation Niceness Nisbett-Reaves Hypothesis Nitric Oxide No Strings Attached Sex No Two Alike Synonyms Definition Introduction About the Book Conclusion Cross-References References Noam Chomsky Introduction Early Life Education Basic Ideas I. Science Plato´s Problem Principles and Parameters Minimalist Program and the Biolinguistic Link Politics and Activism Cross-References References Noam Chomsky and Linguistics Synonyms Definition Introduction Chomsky´s View on Language Chomsky and Language Evolution: A Conceptual Guide Did Language Evolve from Animal Communication? Is Language a Unique Trait or Is It Based on Mechanisms Shared with Other Species? What Has Evolved, Then? How Did FL Emerge? When Did Language Emerge? Why Does Language Imply an Evolutionary Asymmetry? What Is the Role of Natural Selection? Was Communication the Selective Pressure That Guided Language Evolution? Some Criticisms Conclusion Cross-References References Nomadic Foragers Nomological Networks of Evidence Synonyms Definition Introduction Nomological Networks of Evidence Examples of Adaptations for Which a Nomological Network of Evidence Has Been Build Conclusion Cross-References References Non-adaptationist View of Music Nonadaptive Hypotheses Non-aptation Nonassociative Learning Non-associative Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Background Habituation Interstimulus Interval Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination Spontaneous Recovery Sensitization Long-Term Potentiation Kindling Drug Sensitization Eric Kandel Aplysia Conclusion Cross-References References Non-biological Parents Nonconforming Sexuality Noncooperation Noncooperative Non-declarative Learning Nonexploitative Partners Nonfiction Non-fiction Non-fluent Aphasia Nonhuman Intelligence Synonyms Definition Introduction What Makes An Animal Intelligent? Assessments in Nonhumans Factors Contributing to the Evolution of Intelligence Convergent Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References Non-human Leadership Synonyms Definitions Introduction Collective Movements During Group Travel Collective Acquisition and Distribution of Food Leadership During Within and Between-Group Conflicts Conclusions Cross-References References Nonhuman Primate Tool Use Nonhuman Primates Synonyms Definition Introduction Physical and Brain Development Memory Language and Communication Social Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Non-human Primates Nonhuman Primates: Between-Group Conflicts Synonyms Definition Introduction Review Conclusion Cross-References References Nonhuman Primates: Species Typical Movement Synonyms Definition Introduction Brachiation Grip Walking and Running Swimming Conclusion Cross-References References Nonhuman Primates: Within-Group Conflicts Definition Introduction Review Conclusion Cross-References References Nonhuman Reactions to Death Synonyms Definition Introduction Diversity of Responses to Death Behavioral Adjustment to a Risk Exposure Intense Interest in Conspecific Carcasses Infant Corpse Carrying Sexual Arousal and Aggressive Interactions Human-Like Grieving in Captive Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Nonhuman Reciprocal Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction What is Reciprocity? What is the Evidence for Nonhuman Reciprocity? Conclusion Cross-References References Nonhuman Sexual Conflict Synonyms Definition Introduction Precopulatory Conflict Postcopulatory Conflict Conclusion Cross-References References Nonhuman Tool Use Synonyms Definition Introduction Modes and Functions of Tool Use Ecology Evolution Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Noniconic Form-Meaning Mapping Non-independent Mate Choice Non-parental Child Care Nonparental Childcare Non-paternity Non-penetrating Injury Non-primate Mammal Sperm Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Sperm Competition in Polyandrous Species Conclusion Cross-References References Nonsenescent-Related Mortality Nonsexual Social Selection Non-transient Ontogenetic Adaptations Nonverbal Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Indicators of Dominance Synonyms Definition Introduction Static Cues Dynamic Cues Conclusion Cross-References References Nonviolent Coercive Control Non-Western Homosexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction The Multitude of Same-Sex Attractions Conclusion Cross-References References Normal Sexual Development Normative Ethics Normative Relativism Norms Synonyms Definition The Emergence of Evolutionary Social Norms The Kin Selection Model The ``Reciprocal Altruism´´ Model Simulating the Emergence of Evolutionary Social Norms with Play Games The Spread of Social Norms The Influence of Social Norms on Individual´s Social Behaviors The Social-Norm Marketing Campaign Conclusion Cross-References References Norms and Social Contract Novel Male Effect Number Sense Numerical Cognition Nuptial Gift Synonyms Definition Introduction Brief History Evolutionary Development and Benefits Conclusion Cross-References References Nursing Nursing Advantages Nursing Duration in Human Evolution Nursing in Modern Environments Nurture Assumption, The Synonyms Definition Introduction About the Book Critics´ Responses to the Book Conclusion Cross-References References Nutrition Nutritional Independence Nutritional Status O Obesity Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolution of Our Diet Thrifty Genes? Are We Eating to a Protein Target? Conclusion Cross-References References Object Choice Task Object Imprinting Object Manipulation Object Perception Object Permanence Synonyms Definition Introduction Short- Versus Long-Term Object Permanence Is Object Permanence Innate? A Special Case: The Self Object Permanence and Time Phylogenetic Distribution and Evolutionary History Object Permanence and the Social Brain Evolutionary Developmental Perspective Conclusion Cross-References References Object Permanence in Monkeys and Apes Object Play Synonyms Definition Introduction An Evolutionary Perspective Characteristics of Playful Behavior Play and Exploration Play with Objects Gender Differences in Object Play Tool Use Conclusion Cross-References References Objectivism Objectivity Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Arguments and Skepticism About Objectivity Evolution´s Contribution to Perceived Moral Objectivity Responses to Evolutionary Debunking Third-Factor Accounts The Overgeneralization Response Conclusion Cross-References References Obligatory Investment Obligatory Parental Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Parental Investment Theory Differences in Minimum Obligatory Parental Investment Examples of Parental Investment Theory Implications of Asymmetrical Obligatory Parental Investment for Human Sex Differences and Mating Sexual Strategies Sexual Conflict Conclusion Cross-References References Obliterative Shading Observation Observation Cues Observation of Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Observations of Sexual Dimorphism Synonyms Definition Introduction Male Ornamentation Costly Signalling Conclusion Cross-References References Observed Mating Behavior and Women´s Long-Term Mating Synonyms Definition Introduction Pubertal Development Mate Preferences Strategies to Optimize Mating and Reproduction Conclusion Cross-References References Obsessive Fears Obstetrical Dilemma Obstructed Labor Occipitotemporal Projection System Occlusion Synonyms Definition Introduction Occlusion and Visual Completion in Humans and Nonhuman Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Occurrence Ocelli Ocellus Octave Odor and Memory Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Odor-Evoked Memory? Characteristics of Odor-Evoked Memory Context-Dependent Memory Conclusion References Odor Expertise Odor Familiarity Odor Recognition Offensive Sexual Advance Offerings Offspring Offspring Defense Synonyms Definition Introduction Defense Across Development What Do Parents Defend Offspring Against? How Do Parents Defend Offspring? Conclusion Cross-References References Offspring Diversity Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Benefits of Offspring Diversity Offspring Diversity Mechanisms Conclusion Cross-References References Offspring Mating Behavior Offspring Protection Offspring Sex Synonyms Definition Introduction Facultative Adjustment of Offspring Sex Conclusion Cross-References References Offspring-Parent Attachment Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Old Age Older Men Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Olduvai Gorge, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Importance of the Site Conclusion Cross-References References Olfactory Brain Olfactory Bulb, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Architecture of the Olfactory Bulb Laminar Structure of the Olfactory Bulb The Function of the Olfactory Bulb Conclusion References Olfactory Memory Olfactory Navigation Olfactory Perceptual Learning Omega-3 Fatty Acids Omophagous On the Origin of Species Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Mechanisms in the Origin Speciation in the Origin Extinction in the Origin Classification in the Origin Geographical Distribution in the Origin Instinct in the Origin The Initial Reception of the Origin Conclusion Cross-References References On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life Onanism One Offspring One Parent´s Offspring Whose Other Parents Are Different One-Male Group One-Male Troop One-Male/Multi-female Group One-Male-Multi/Female Troop One-Night Stand One-Night Stands Online Questionnaire Online Survey Synonyms Definition Introduction Benefits of Online Surveys Disadvantages of Online Surveys Mechanical Turk Tips for Conducting Online Studies Conclusion Cross-References References Onomatopoeia Onset of Menstruation Ontogenetic Adaptations Synonyms Definition Introduction Ontogenetic Adaptations of the Prenatal Period and Infancy Ontogenetic Adaptations of Childhood Conclusion Cross-References References Ontogenetic Versus Deferred Adaptations Synonyms Definition Introduction Ontogenetic Adaptations Deferred Adaptations Conclusion Cross-References References Ontogeny Open to Sex Openness to Experience Operant Behavior Operant Conditioning Synonyms Definition Introduction Overview of Operant Conditioning The Work of B. F. Skinner Necessary Conditions for Learning Contiguity Discrepancy Principles of Operant Conditioning Consequences and Contingencies in Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and Punishment Schedules of Reinforcement Shaping Chaining Superstitious Behavior Applications of Operant Conditioning Behavior Modification Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) Evolutionary Perspectives on Operant Conditioning Conclusion Cross-References References Operant Conditioning Chamber Operational Sex Ratio Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Dynamics Sex Roles in Reproduction Male-Biased Sex Ratios Female-Biased Sex Ratios Polygyny Conclusion Cross-References References Opportunistic Mating Opposing Reproductive Goals Opposite-Gender Friend Opposite-Sex Friend Synonyms Definition Introduction Historical and Social Context Evolutionary Psychology and Opposite-Sex Friends Sexual Attraction in Opposite-Sex Friendships Advantages and Disadvantages of Having Opposite-Sex Friends Methodological Considerations in Researching Opposite-Sex Friendships Conclusion Cross-References References Opposite-Sex Friendships Opposite-Sex Interpersonal Relationships Opposite-Sex Peer Acceptance Opposite-Sex Relationships Synonyms Definition Introduction Peer Relationships Opposite-Sex Peer Relationships Research Findings Conclusion Cross-References References Opposition to Economic Redistribution Opposition to Human Sperm Competition Definitions Introduction Female Infidelity and Levels of Extra-Pair Paternity Sperm Fertility Sperm Biology Male Genitalia Seminal Fluids Conclusion Cross-References References Oppressing Optical Flattening Optical Illusions Optimal Clutch Size Synonyms Definition Introduction Lack´s Model Individual Variation and the Underestimation of Fitness Trade-Offs Additional Costs of Clutch Size Individual Optimization Litter Size and Interbirth Interval in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Optimal Designs Products and Byproducts of Natural Selection Case Study: The Spandrels of San Marco What Is Optimal? A Note on Terminology Optimal Designs Are Peaks on the Adaptive Landscape Natural Selection Cannot Cross a Fitness Valley Genetic Drift Gets in the Way of Natural Selection What ``Optimal´´ Means What ``Optimal´´ Does Not Mean Optimal for What Purpose? And for Whom? Game Theory and Evolutionary Stable Strategies Symbiosis and Parasitism Intragenomic Conflict Examples of Optimal Designs and Suboptimal Equilibria in Psychology The Regions of the Brain: Layers of a Kluge Optical Illusions: The Pitfalls of Solving an Impossible Problem Cognitive Biases: Optimized Shortcuts Summary References Optimal Foraging Models Optimal Imitation Optimal Learning Optimal Litter Size Optimal Skew Theory Optimal Versus Stable Group Size Optimally Primed Stimulus Option Attributes Or Markers of Adultery Oral Cavity Oral Contraception Oral Contraceptives Oral Gesture Theory Oral Sex Oral Sex and Human Sexual Behavior Definition Introduction Functional Hypotheses of Oral Sex in Humans Limitations and Future Directions Conclusion Cross-References References Oral Sex and Initiation Oral Sex and Sexual Debut Synonyms Definition Introduction Rates of Oral Sex, Overall and by Demographic Factors Conclusion Cross-References References Oral Sex as Mate Retention Definition Introduction Oral Sex as Mate Retention Oral Sex as Benefit-Provisioning Mate Retention Limitations and Future Directions Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Ordinal Position Organ of Corti Organising Instruction Organized Organized-Insecure Attachment Definition Introduction Insecure-Avoidant Attachment Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment Conclusion Cross-References References Organizers Orgasm Synonyms Definition Introduction Physiological and Psychological Effects of Orgasm Orgasm as an Adaptation Orgasm as a By-Product Conclusion Cross-References References Orgasm Triggered by Sexual Intercourse Orgasmic Disorders Synonyms Definition Introduction Premature Ejaculation Delayed/Inhibited Ejaculation Female Orgasmic Disorder Conclusion Cross-References References Orientation Oriented Smell Origin of Language Origin of Species Origins of Patriarchy Synonyms Definition Introduction Mechanisms of Control of Female Sexuality Conclusion Cross-References References Ornamentation Orrorin Orrorin tugenensis Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Ostensive Communication Ostentatious Consumption Ostracism Othello Jealousy Othello Syndrome Other Children Other-Focused Emotions Otolith Synonyms Definition Introduction The Saccule The Utricle Functions of the Otoliths Conclusion Cross-References References Otolithic Membrane Otolithic Organs Outcomes of Homophobic Abuse Synonyms Definition Introduction Outcomes of Homophobic Abuse Conclusion Cross-References References Outer (External) Ear Outer Ear, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Pinna The Ear Canal Conclusion References Out-Group Outgroup Derogation Out-Group Members Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Identity Theory Out-Group Homogeneity Bias Perceived Threat Contact Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Overconfidence Overimitation Overweight Ovulate Ovulation Synonyms Definition Introduction Cyclic Variation in Female Mate Preferences Changes in Female Sexual Motivation Changes in Female Attractiveness Male Detection of Ovulation Conclusion Cross-References References Ovulation Suppression Ovulatory Cycle Ovulatory Cycle Phase Ovulatory Cycle Phases Ovulatory Hormones Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Ovulatory Shifts in Attraction Ovulatory Shifts in Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction Concealed Ovulation? Sexual Desire Attractiveness and Desire Dual Mating Dressing During the Ovulatory Cycle Preferences for Partners Conclusion Cross-References References Oxidants Oxidative Stress and Free Radicals Synonyms Definition Introduction Oxidative Stress Free Radicals Mechanism of Action of Free Radicals Health Implications of Oxidative Stress and Free Radicals Conclusion Cross-References References Oxytocine P Pace of Life Pacification Paddling Pain/Absence of Pleasure Pair Bonding Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolutionary Function of Pair-Bond Attachment Increased Offspring Survival by Means of Strong Affectional Ties between Mates Further Reproductive Advantages of Pair Bonds Pair-Bond Functioning and Romantic Attachment Styles Individual Differences in Pair Bonding: Attachment or Reproductive Strategies? Conclusion Cross-References References Pair Bonds Pair-Bond Attachment Pair-Bonding Pair-Bonding in Other Mammals Synonyms Definition Introduction What is Pair-bonding and How do we Measure it? What Other Mammals Pair-Bond? What Is the Neurobiological and Physiological Basis of Pair-Bonding in Other Mammals? Conclusion Cross-References References Palatability Paleoanthropology Synonyms Definition Introduction Paleoanthropology Conclusion Cross-References References Paleoneurology Pallium Pan Panhuman Manifestations of Genealogical Relationships Pant Hoots Paraaustralopithecus aethiopicus Parable Paranthropus Paranthropus aethiopicus Synonyms Definition Introduction Morphology and Evolutionary Relationships Key Specimens Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Paranthropus boisei Synonyms Definition Introduction Morphology and Evolutionary Relationships Key Specimens Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Paranthropus robustus Synonyms Definition Introduction Discoveries Dating Morphology Taxonomic Views Dietary Habits Tool Use Sexual Dimorphism and Mating System Conclusion Cross-References References Paraphilia Synonyms Definition Introduction Official Definitions of Paraphilias Defining Paraphilia from an Evolutionary Perspective Paraphilia and Sexual Drive Sexuality and Psychopathology Sexuality and the Law How Can Disorders of Sexual Preference Be Defined? Conclusion Cross-References References Paraphilias Parasite Adversity Parasite Avoidance Parasites Synonyms Definition Introduction An Evolutionary Overview of Parasites Conclusion Cross-References References Parasite-Stress Theory Parasitic Male Parasympathetic Nervous System Parencephalis Parent Influences Synonyms Introduction to Parental Influence The Role of Parental Investment Attachment Theory and Parental Influence Conclusion Cross-References References Parent(s) Parental Behavior Parental Care Parental Care, Parenting Parental Choice Parental Effort Parental Effort Versus Mating Effort Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Parental Filicide Parental Infanticide Parental Influence Parental Investment Parental Investment and Parenting Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Psychology Approach Analytical Systems Approach (Interactions of Individual Traits) Context-Dependent Parenting Parental Condition Dependent Normative Cultural Value-Based Versus Functional Fitness-Based Approach Conclusion Cross-References References Parental Investment and Sexual Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Parental Investment and Parental Care Sex Differences in Parental Investment, Mate Competition, and Sexual Selection Multiple Mating and Parentage Can Affect Parental Investment and Sexual Selection Time Out of the Mating Pool Post-Care Can Affect Investment and Sexual Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Parental Investment and Sexual Selection (Trivers Foundational Theory) Synonyms Definition Introduction Trivers´ Model Conclusion Cross-References References Parental Investment as Mating Effort Synonyms Definition Introduction Care for the Offspring as a Strategy of Sexual Competition Conclusion Cross-References References Parental Investment Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Forms of Parental Investment How Are Asymmetries Determined? Conclusion Cross-References References Parental Investment Theory (Middle-Level Theory in Evolutionary Psychology) Synonyms Definition Introduction Fisher´s Principle Hamilton´s Inclusive Fitness (Kin Selection) Theory Trivers´ Model of Parental Investment Parent-Offspring Conflict r/K Selection Hypothesis and Life-History Theory Differential Parental Investment in Sons and Daughters Trivers-Willard Hypothesis Reproductive Variance Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Parental Investment vs. Mating Effort Parental Mate Choice Parental Monitoring Parental Sensitivity Parent-Child Resemblance Parenthood Parenting Parenting Benefits Parenting Costs Parenting Decisions Parenting Effort Parent-Offspring Conflict Synonyms Definition Introduction Conflict Over Continuation of Parental Investment Conclusion Cross-References References Parent-Offspring Conflict (Trivers) Definition Introduction The Status of the Theory Parent-Offspring Conflict in Relation to Relatedness and Age Who Wins Parent-Offspring Conflict? The Paradox Conclusion Cross-References References Parent-Offspring Conflict in Mate Selection Parents-as-Mediators Parity Parochial Altruism Partial Migration Partner Abuse Partner Abuse and Homicide Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Overview Risk Factors Sex Age Jealousy and Cuckoldry Risk Women Who Abuse Men Relationship Status Psychopathy Conclusion Cross-References References Partner Abuse and Homicide: Victims and Perpetrators Explaining Characteristics of Perpetrators and Victims Cross-References References Partner Characteristics Partner Choice Partner Death as Designed Outcome Cross-References References Partner Desertion Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Partner Exploitation Partner Homicide Synonyms Definition Introduction Hypothesis: Reproductive Conflicts Are at the Core of Partner Homicides Predicted Traits of Partner Homicide and Their Empirical Support Sex Differentiation in Motive for Partner Homicide Perpetration Sexual Proprietariness Staying Alive Age of Perpetrator and Victim The Woman´s Age as a Predictor for the Risk for Victimization The Woman´s Age as a Predictor for the Risk for Perpetration Age Disparity as a Predictor for the Risk to Both Sexes Increased Risk Among Cohabiting Couples Compared to Married Couples Children from Previous Relationships Familicide Nonheterosexual Relationships and Partner Homicide Cross-National Variance in Rates of Partner Homicide Conclusion Cross-References References Partner Killing Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolution of Paricide Paricide Prevalence Adolescent Dating Violence as a Risk Factor LGBTQIA Community Emotional Factors Means Used to Commit Paricide Motives to Commit Paricide Married or Cohabitating Neurological Factors and Intimate Partner Killings Conclusion Cross-References References Partner or Acquaintance Rape Partner Preference Partner Preference Effects Partner Preferences Partner Rape Synonyms Definition Causes of Partner Rape Cross-References References Partner Reproductive Value Partner Sexual Coercion Partner Violence Partner-Directed Violence Partnerships Passive Coping Pasture Paternal Assurance Tactics Paternal Care Synonyms Definition Introduction Particularities and Predictors of Paternal Care Conclusion Cross-References References Paternal Discrepancy Paternal Disengagement Paternal Grandfather Invests Least Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Paternal Grandfather Versus Maternal Grandmother Paternal Insecurity Paternal Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Background Testosterone and Paternal Investment Paternal Investment and Offspring Developmental Outcomes Conclusion Cross-References References Paternal Investment Relative to Maternal Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidences of PI Theory in Nonhuman Animals Human Tests of PI Theory Competing Theories of Cooperative Breeding Conclusion Cross-References References Paternal Resemblance Definition Introduction Hypothetical Investment Resemblance, Investment, and the Brain Adult Versus Child Faces Maternal Strategies Conclusions Cross-References References Paternal Role Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of the Paternal Role Family Dynamic Conclusion Cross-References References Paternal Uncertainty Paternal-Offspring Conflict Paternity Certainty Synonyms Definition Introduction Paternity Certainty and Paternal Care Conclusion Cross-References References Paternity Confusion Synonyms Definition Introduction Biological and Behavioral Adaptations Related to Paternal Confusion Conclusion Cross-References References Paternity Uncertainty Paternity Uncertainty and Father-Offspring Conflict Synonyms Definition Introduction Paternity Uncertainty and Father-Offspring Conflict Conclusion Cross-References References Paternity Uncertainty and Investment in Sons and Daughters Synonyms Definition Introduction Paternal Investment and Paternity Uncertainty Grandparental Investment and Paternal Uncertainty Adoption and Paternal Investment Conclusion Cross-References References Paternity Uncertainty Hypothesis Synonyms Definitions Introduction Paternity Uncertainty Conclusions Cross-References References Pathogen Avoidance Pathogen Defense Pathogen Disgust and Perceptions of Attractiveness Synonyms Definition Introduction Health and Perceptions of Attractiveness Individual Differences in Pathogen Disgust Temporary Salience of Pathogen Threat Environmental Variation in Pathogen Prevalence Conclusion Cross-References References Pathogen Load and Attractiveness Synonyms Definition Introduction Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesis Human Cues to Pathogen Load Conclusion Cross-References References Pathogen Prevalence Pathogen Protection Synonyms Definition Introduction Resistance and Tolerance: An Intricate Dance Immune Structure and Interactions The Fetal Role: An Active Player Conclusions References Pathogen Resistance Synonyms Definition Introduction Pathogen Resistance: Evolutionary Perspectives Evasion of Host Immunity by Pathogens Resistance Against Antimicrobial Drugs Resistance Genes from Food Conclusion Cross-References References Pathogen Resistance Theory Pathogen Risk Synonyms Definition Introduction Physiological and Behavioral Immune Systems Psychological Consequences of Pathogen Risk Conclusion Cross-References References Pathogens Pathological Jealousy Patriarchy Patriarchy and Feminist Perspectives Synonyms Definition Introduction Male Dominance and the Origins of Patriarchy Feminist Perspectives: Female Resistance as a Threat to Patriarchy The Darwinian Feminism Conclusion Cross-References References Patrigene Pattern of Biased Grandparental Investment Patterns of Helping Behavior Paul Vasey Definition Synonyms Introduction Research Interests Japanese Macaque Research Cross-cultural Research Conclusion Cross-References References Pavlovian Conditioning Pay Equity PD Peck Order Pecking Order Pedigree Peer Acceptance Peer Competition and Cooperation Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary and Psychological Perspectives of Peer Competition and Cooperation Peer Competition Developmental Trajectory of Peer Competition Cross-Cultural Differences in Peer Competition Norm-Driven Peer Competition Peer Cooperation The Two Problems of Peer Cooperation The Ontogeny of the Mechanisms for Generating and Distributing the Benefit of Peer Cooperation The Phylogeny of the Mechanisms for Generating and Distributing the Benefit of Peer Cooperation Peer Cooperation and Shared Intentionality The Cooperative Origins of Shared Intentionality The Role of Ontogeny in the Evolution of Human Peer Cooperation Conclusion Cross-References References Peer Effect Peer Feedback and Norms Synonyms Definition Introduction Need to Belong Theory Assimilation Differentiation Positive Feedback Negative Feedback Conclusion References Peer Groups Synonyms Definition Introduction Stratification of Peer Groups Peer Groups as an Adaptation Social Dominance Sex Differences in Peer Groups Male Peer Groups Female Peer Groups Potential Outcomes of Peer Group Membership Well-Being and Health Academic Performance Risk-Taking Bullying and Victimization Conclusion: Implications of Evolutionary Research on Peer Groups Cross-References References Peer Networks Peer Norm Peer Pressure Synonyms Definition Introduction Peer Pressure and Child Development Peer Pressure and Mating Conclusion Cross-References References Peer Rejection Peer Rejection, Gender Differences in Response to Synonyms Definition Introduction Psychological Detriments Physiological Detriments Behavioral Outcomes Conclusion References Peer Rejection, Sex Differences in Initiation of Synonyms Definition Introduction Varieties of Rejection Cyber Rejection Conclusion Cross-References References Peer Relationships Peer Relationships in Childhood Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolutionary Significance of Peer Relationships A Developmental Perspective on Peer Relationships Determinants of Peer Relationships Relationship Competencies and Motivations of Individual Children Relationships as an Entity Quality and Impact of Peer Relationships Building Effective Peer Relationships Conclusion Cross-References References Peer Socialization Synonyms Introduction to Peer Socialization Defining Peer Socialization Homophily in Social Groups Mate Selection Group Socialization Theory on Personality Development Conclusion Cross-References References Peer Victimization Peers Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Perspectives on Peer Relationships in Adolescence Neurobiological Bases of Peer Influence in Adolescence Implications for Interventions Conclusion Cross-References References Peer-to-Peer Aggression Peggy Mason Synonyms Definition Peggy Mason Conclusion Cross-References References Penalize Penetrating Injury Penile Evolution Penile-Vaginal Sex Synonyms Definition Introduction Activating the Vagina for Coitus The Female Orgasm Problem The Anterior Vaginal Wall Complex Is the Cervix Stimulated in PVI Causing Sexual Arousal? Conclusion Cross-References References People´s Responses to Personal Ads Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Sells Sometimes Same-Sex Stimuli May also Sell Conclusion Cross-References References Perceived Control and Suicide from an Evolutionary Mismatch Perspective Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Underpinnings of Perceived Control-Suicide Link Perceived Control-Suicide Link from an Evolutionary Mismatch Viewpoint Conclusion Cross-References References Perceived Income Inequality Perceived Insurmountable Problems and Self-Murder Perceived Social Threat Perceiving Sexual Intent Synonyms Definition Introduction Error Management Theory and the Overperception Bias The Influence of Alcohol on Overperception Conclusion Cross-References References Perception of One´s Capability and Extreme Fears of Some Creatures Perceptions of Infidelity Synonyms Definition Perceptions of Infidelity Conclusion Cross-References References Perceptions of Infidelity Cues Synonyms Definition Introduction Male Masculinity Female Femininity The Role of Attractiveness in Perceptions of Infidelity Implications for Mate Choice Conclusion Cross-References References Perceptions of Race Percussive Lithic Tools Performance Performance Enhancement Perinatal Depression Peripartum Depression Peripheral Auditory System Permanent Marking Permissibility of Reproduction Synonyms Definitions Introduction The Natalist Debate The Antinatalist Debate Conclusion Cross-References References Perpetrators Mostly men Synonyms Definition Introduction Gender Differences in Criminal Involvement: Why are Perpetrators Mostly men? Matting Effort: Competition, Fitness, and Sexual Selection Genetic and Neurohormonal Differences: Evolutionary Androgenic Theory Conclusion References Persistence Personal Distress Personal Memory Synonyms Definition Introduction Self-Observation Self-Observation as a Social Process Self-Observation and Consciousness Self-Observation Within Psychotherapy Inceptive and Derived Memory Human Memory and Computation Adaptive Function of Memory and Its Properties Benefits and Disadvantages Trait Summaries Stored Episodes Scope Hypothesis Boundary Conditions on the Scope of Generalizations Decision Context The Self-Study The Mother Study Summary Representation Summary Representation as a Function in Scope Hypothesis The Statistical Nature of Summary Representation Change Blindness The Role of Attention Conclusion Cross-References References Personal Protection Personal Value Personality Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Personality and Mate Poaching Synonyms Definition Introduction Personality Correlates of Mate Poaching Attempts Personality Correlates of Mate Poaching Success Personality Correlates of Being a Target of Mate Poaching Personality Correlates of Being Successfully Poached Personality Correlates of Being a Victim of Mate Poaching Sex Differences in Personality Correlates of Poaching Experiences Cross-Cultural Universality of the Relationship Between Personality and Mate Poaching Experiences Conclusion Cross-References References Personality Development Synonyms Introduction Defining Personality Heritability and Behavior A Brief History of Personality Psychology Personality, Development, and Change Contextual Mechanisms of Change Conclusion Cross-References References Personality Dimensions Personality Disorders Synonyms Definition Introduction The Ten Personality Disorders Cluster A Cluster B Cluster C Conclusion Cross-References References Personality Models Personality Traits Personality, Gender, and Culture Synonyms Definition Introduction Personality and Darwinian Fitness Sex Differences in Personality Traits Sex Differences in Sociality and Social Outcomes Culture, Development, and Caveats Conclusion Cross-References References Personalized Experience Perspective Taking Peter Kropotkin Synonyms Definition Introduction Early Life Mutual Aid and Siberia Conclusion Cross-References References Petroglyphs Phantom Limbs Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Phantom Pain Phantom Sensations Pharynx Phenomenological Self Phenoptosis Phenotype Phenotype Linked Fertility Hypothesis, The Definition Introduction Predictions, Assumptions and Evidence Constraints on Investment Current Evidence Assumptions of the PLFH Conclusion Cross References References Phenotype Matching Phenotypic and Genotypic Plasticity Phenotypic Cues Phenotypic Matching Phenotypic Quality Advertisement Phenotypic Resemblance and Kinship Detection References Phenotypic Similarity Phenotypic Variance Philippa Foot Synonyms Definitions Introduction The Scholarship of Philippa Foot Conclusions Cross-References References Philomachus pugnax Philopatry Philosopher Philosophical Antecedents of Darwin Philosophical Foundations for a Modern Morality Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is ``Modern Morality´´? Naturalism Substantive Ethics Metaethics Conclusion Cross-References References Philosophie Zoologique Synonyms Definition Introduction Zoological Philosophy: An Exposition with Regard to the Natural History of Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Phobia Phobias Synonyms Definition Introduction Phobic Disorders Specific Phobia Social Phobia Agoraphobia Developmental Theories of Phobias Treatment Conclusion Cross-References References Phonemes and Symbols Synonyms Definition Introduction Signs and Phonemes Phonemes and Allophones Minimal Pairs Phonemic Inventories Levels of Representation Symbolic Operations and Rules Distinctive Features Conclusion Cross-References References Phonological Loop and Rehearsal Synonyms Definition Introduction The Two-Component Model of Phonological Loop Evidence for the Phonological Loop Evolutionary Functions of the Phonological Loop Conclusion Cross-References References Phonological Short-Term Memory Phonological Store and Articulatory Rehearsal Phylogenetic Phylogenetic Analysis Within Comparative Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction Phylogenetic Signal Phylogenetic Independent Contrasts Phylogenetic Generalized Least Squares Regression Phylogenetic Path Analysis Phylogenetic Logistic Regression and Phylogenetic Generalized Linear Mixed Models Correlated Evolution with Categorical Traits Phylogenetic Meta-Analysis Models to Test and Compare Evolutionary Processes Conclusion Cross-References References Phylogenetic Comparative Methods Phylogenetic Generalized Least Squares Regression Phylogenetic Meta-analysis Phylogenetic Path Analysis Phylogenetic Signal Phylogenetic Study of Homosexual Behavior Phylogeny of Light Detection and Vision Phylogeny of Play Behavior Physical Physical Activities Physical Activity Physical Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Physical Aggression Explanations of Sex Differences from an Evolutionary Perspective Aggression in a Modern Context Conclusion Cross-References References Physical and Verbal Aggression Physical Assault Physical Attacks Physical Attractiveness Synonyms Definition Introduction Female Attractiveness Male Attractiveness Physical Attractiveness Is Adaptive Conclusion Cross-References References Physical Bullying Physical Characteristics Physical Cognition Physical Discipline Physical Force Physical Health Synonyms Definition Introduction Physical Activity for Mood, Cardiovascular Health and Body Concept Nutrients and Sports Conclusion Acknowledgment References Physical Punishment Physical Self-Similarity Physical Shape Physician Physician-Assisted Death Physiologic Processes Physiological Evidence for Human Sperm Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Ejaculate Adjustment Semen Displacement Conclusion Cross-References References Physiological Mechanisms Synonyms Definition Introduction Physiological Mechanisms: Variations Physiological Mechanisms: Evolutionary Significance Physiological Mechanisms: Health Significance Conclusion Cross-References References Physiological Responses Physiology Physiology of Language Synonyms Definition Introduction Physiology of Speech Perception Physiology of Speech Articulation and Production Physiology of Reading Conclusions Cross-References References Physiology of Reading Processes Physiology of Speech Articulation Physiology of Speech Perception Physique Picture Brides Pidgins and Creoles Synonyms Definition Introduction On the Nature of Pidgins and Creoles On the Superstratist, Substratist, and Universalist Views of Creole Genesis Current Theories of Creole Formation: The Interlanguage Hypothesis, Relexification, Language Creation, and Feature Recombinati... Conclusion Cross-References References Piercings Pinker and Chomsky Pinker Evolutionary Psychology Pinker´s (1994) The Language Instinct Synonyms Definition Introduction Universal Grammar and Innateness of Language The Myth of Degenerating Language Mentalese Design of Language Evolution and Language Conclusion Cross-References References Placental Proteins in Semen Definition Introduction Pregnancy Outcomes Conclusion Cross-References References Plain Planned Plant Hybridization Platonic Jealousy Play Play and Social Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction Development Through Social Learning Importance of Play Conclusion Cross-References References Play and Tool Use Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Play? Object Play Tool Use Cross-References References Play as Adaptation Play Fighting in Boys Synonyms Definition Introduction Definition of Play Types of Play R&T and Play Fighting Underlying Factors in Play Fighting Evolutionary Factors in Play Fighting Conclusion Cross-References References Play with Others Playful Behavior Pledge to Marry Pleiotropy Definition Introduction Evolutionary Theory of Aging Molecular Genetics Prevalence and Disease Types of Pleiotropy Based on Effects Conclusion Cross-References References Pointing Political Affiliation Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Evolutionary Political Psychology? Evolutionary Predictors of Political Affiliation Moral Foundations and Motivated Social Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Political Attitudes Political Bias Political Ideologies Political Ideology Political Interest Political Left, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Relativism Versus Human Rights Conclusion Cross-References References Political Mechanisms Political Orientation Political Psychology Political Scientist Politics in Science Synonyms Definition Introduction Psychological Mechanisms Involved in Political Ideologies Pathogen Aversion Moral Modules Political Bias in Science Conclusion Cross-References References Poll Polyadic Aggression Polyandry Synonyms Definition Introduction Explanations for Polyandry When Polyandrous Marriages Persist: A Multidimensional Conundrum Conclusion Cross-References References Polygamy Polygamy (Behavioral Ecology) Synonyms Definition Polygamy and Parental Investment Environmental Influences on Mating Systems Mammalian Mating Systems Avian Mating Systems Mating Systems and Sexual Conflict The Evolution of Polyandry Lek Mating Systems Human Polygamy References Polygamy in Humans Synonyms Definition Introduction Evidence for Polygyny Evidence for Polyandry Advantages of Monogamy Conclusion Cross-References References Polygamy Threshold Polygynandry Polygyny Polygyny and Effective Population Sex Ratio Synonyms Definition Introduction Reproductive Dynamics Conclusion Cross-References References Polygyny and Male Risk-Taking for Status Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Reproductive Dynamics Polygyny Human Polygyny and Risk-Taking Conclusion Cross-References References Polygyny Threshold (Behavioral Ecology) Synonyms Definition Introduction From Monogamy to Polygyny The Polygyny Threshold Model Counter-Evidences and Criticism Conclusion Cross-References References Polygyny Threshold, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Parental Investment and Female Choice Female Mate Preferences Women´s Preference for Resources The Polygyny Threshold: Theory The Polygyny Threshold in Humans: Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Polyvagal Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Vagal Tone Vagal Paradox Polyvagal Theory Afferent Pathways: Neuroception Efferent Pathways: Phylogenic Differences DVC VVC Vagal Brake Phylogenetic Hierarchies Conclusion Cross-References References Pooh-Pooh Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Popular Children Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Dominance: Aggression and Victimization Risk-Taking Behaviors Positive Outcomes for Popular Children Conclusion Cross-References References Popularity Population Bottleneck Synonyms Definition Introduction Population Bottleneck with Respect to Climate Fluctuations Conclusion Cross-References References Population Ecology Pornography and Women´s Short-Term Mating Definition Introduction Opposition to Pornography Short-Term Mating Two Human Natures Conclusion Cross-References References Pornography as a Human Product and Source of Data Synonyms Definition Introduction Pornography and Environmental Mismatch Content of Pornography Appealing Primarily to Men Content of Pornography Appealing to Women Content Specifically Related to Increasing Reproductive Success Conclusion Cross-References References Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment Synonyms Definition Introduction Positive and Negative Reinforcement Primary and Secondary Reinforcement Intrinsic and Extrinsic Reinforcement Positive and Negative Punishment Conclusion Cross-References References Positive Frequency-Dependent Selection Positive Impacts of Exposure to Nature on Human Health Positive Parenting Positive Psychology Positive Punishment Positive Reinforcement Positive Sexual Development Synonyms Definitions Introduction Factors Affecting Sexual Development Positive Sexual Development Implications Conclusion Cross-References References Positive Sexual Imprinting Postcolonial Studies Postcolonialism Synonyms Definition Introduction Colonialism and Its Effects Postcolonialism and Mainstream Psychology Conclusion References Postcoloniality Post-Copulation Strategies in Oocyte Fertilization Postcopulatory Conflict Postcopulatory Sexual Selection Post-Copulatory Sexual Selection Postmenopausal Altruism Postmenopausal Somatic Maintenance Post-Reproductive Longevity Postnatal Postpartum Depression Synonyms Definition Introduction Etiopathogenesis of Postpartum Depression Clinical Features of Postpartum Depression Nosological Status of Postpartum Depression Management of Postpartum Depression Implications of Postpartum Depression Conclusion Cross-References References Post-Reproductive Life Span Potential Mate or Partner Fitness Value Potential Mates Pounding Tools Power Powerlessness Practical Reasoning Practice Practice Play Practices Praeanthropus Pragmatics Prairie Precopulatory Conflict Precopulatory Intrasexual Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Context, Causes and Consequences Weapons and Fights Alternative Reproductive Tactics and Intrasexual Dimorphism Precopulatory Mate Guarding Precopulatory Intrasexual Competition and Sexual Conflict Female-Female Competition Conclusion Cross-References References Precopulatory Sexual Selection Precursor to Language Predacious Pre-Darwinian Evolutionary Ideas Pre-Darwinian Species Definitions Predator Attraction Predator Confusion Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Alarm Call Creates Confusion Confusion Enables Escape Conclusions Cross-References References Predator Detection Predator Deterrence Hypothesis Predator Satiation Predator Saturation Predator Swamping Synonyms Cross-References References Predators Synonyms Definition Introduction Effects on Hunting Behaviors Conclusion Cross-References References Predators as Attention-Grabbing Synonyms Definition Introduction Threats, Fears, and Attention Related Findings and Conclusions Cross-References References Predicting Events and Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Predicting Events Predicting Behaviors Conclusion Cross-References References Predictors of Grandparental Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Genetic Relatedness Sex and Lineage Sex of a Grandchild Outcomes of Grandparental Investment Conclusion Cross-References References Predictors of Infanticide Synonyms Definition Introduction Biological Parents vs. Stepparents Discriminative Parental Solicitude, Life History, and Infanticide Low-Fitness Offspring Mothers´ Age Paternal Support Resource Scarcity Birth Spacing Can We Reduce Infanticide? Conclusion Cross-References References Predictors of Sexual Debut Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Perspectives Sex Differences Environmental Predictors Conclusion Cross-References References Predictors of Violent Intergroup Conflict Predisposing Factors Predisposition Preference Preference by Mating Context Preference for Solitude Preferences in Long- Versus Short-Term Mating Synonyms Definition Introduction Men`s Preference by Mating Context Conclusion Cross-References References Preferential Investment Hypothesis Preferential Investment in More Certain Kin Pre-frontal Cortex Pregnancy Pregnancy Brain Pregnancy Complications Definition Introduction Objectives of the Chapter Pregnancy with Previous Caesarean Section Definition Impact of Complications on the Outcome Complications During Pregnancy and Postpartum Effects on the Scar Effects on the Healing Wound Diagnosis Management Elective C-Section Emergency C-Section Vaginal Birth After Caesarean Section Pregnancy in RH-Negative Women Impact of RH Alloimmunization Diagnosis Management Elderly Primigravida Complication During Pregnancy During Labor and Delivery Fetal Risks Puerperium Perinatal Outcome Grand Multipara Definition Parity Incidence Complications of Grand Multipara Pregnancy Labour and Delivery Puerperium Long-term effects Management Bad Obstetric History Anti-phospholipid Syndrome Inherited Thrombophilia Management Vigilance High-Risk Pregnancy Obesity in Pregnancy Effects on Pregnancy Effects on Labor Puerperium Management Conclusion Cross-References References Pregnancy Prevention Pregnancy Sickness Synonyms Definition Introduction Is pregnancy sickness adaptive? Prediction 1 Prediction 2 Prediction 3 Prediction 4 Prediction 5 Conclusion Cross-References References Pregnancy-Induced Diabetes Prehistoric Human Art Synonyms Definition Introduction Prehistoric Human Art Conclusion Cross-References References Prejudice Synonyms Definition Introduction Overview Implicit Versus Explicit Prejudice Forms of Prejudice Expression Functions of Prejudice Prejudice as Affect Prejudice from an Evolutionary Perspective Conclusion Cross-References References Prejudice as an Expression of Tribalism Synonyms Definition Introduction Cross-References References Premarital Sexual Permissiveness Introduction Concept of Sexual Permissiveness Factors Affecting Premarital Sexual Permissiveness Age Religious Beliefs Social Belief Systems Knowledge About Health Risks Perceptions of Gender Role Expectations and Traditional Norms Scales for Measurement of Premarital Sexual Permissiveness Premarital Sexual Permissiveness Among Various Ethnicities Conclusion Cross-References References Premature Birth Premature Ejaculation Premature Infants Prematurity Premeditated Homicide Premeditated Murder Premodern Language Capacity Prenatal Prenatal Androgens Prenatal Development Prenatal Environment, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Background Prenatal Environment as a Forecast Parent-offspring Conflict Maternal Stress and the HPA Axis Conclusion Cross-References References Prenatal Hormones Prenatal Sex Steroids Prepuberal Gonadectomy Presence of Children Synonyms Definition Introduction How Parent´s Age Influences Their Mate Preferences in a Subsequent Partner What Characteristics are Important in a Subsequent Partner? How Children Actively Manipulate Mate Preferences of their Parents for Prospective Stepparents Conclusion Cross-References References Presence of Siblings Synonyms Definition: Alloparents Introduction Presence of Siblings and Life Span Development Conclusion Cross-References References Prestige Prestriate Visual Cortex Pretense Preterm Birth Synonyms Definition Introduction The Burden of Preterm Birth Human Pregnancy, in Brief Evolutionary Perspectives on Birth Timing in Humans Mismatch and PTB Trade-Offs and PTB Evolutionary Conflicts and PTB Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Preterm Labor Prevalence of Forced Copulation in Orangutans Synonyms Definition Introduction Orangutan Background Information Defining Forced Copulations Why Do Forced Copulations Occur? Forced and Cooperative Matings, by the Numbers Why Are Forced Copulations Prevalent in Orangutans Conclusion Cross-References References Prevalence of STDs Synonyms Definition Introduction Scope of the Problem Subsequent Morbidities of STDs STD Prevention Conclusion Cross-References References Prevention of Infidelity Synonyms Definition Introduction Preventing Infidelity Men´s Strategies to Prevent Female Infidelity Women´s Strategies to Prevent Male Infidelity Mechanisms to Detect Infidelity Cues in Partners and Interlopers Men´s Infidelity Detection Mechanisms Women´s Infidelity Detection Mechanisms Reducing Adaptive Costs of Infidelity Men´s Mechanisms Women´s Mechanisms Individual Differences in Infidelity Prevention Physical Differences Personality and Infidelity Prevention Strategies Conclusion References Previously Hominid Evolution Prey Availability Synonyms Definition Introduction Prey Availability and Foraging Decisions Prey Availability, Plasticity, and Evolution Predator-Prey Dynamics and Prey Availability Prey Availability and Human Foraging Conclusion Cross-References References Prey Choice Synonyms Definition Introduction Modeling Prey Choice Learning Processes Applications to Human Evolutionary Psychology Evolution, Plasticity, and Prey Choice Conclusion Cross-References References Prey Preference Prey Selection Pride Primary and Secondary Auditory Cortex Synonyms Definition Introduction The Primary Auditory Cortex The Secondary Auditory Cortex Conclusion References Primary Circular Reactions Primary Language Acquisition Primate Primate Aggression Primate Brain Size Evolution Primate Cooperation Definition Introduction Diversity of Primate Cooperation Mechanisms of Primate Cooperation Conclusion Cross-References References Primate Dominance Hierarchies Synonyms Definition Introduction Describing and Quantifying Dominance Hierarchies Dominance Hierarchies in Primates: Variation and Phylogenetic Patterns Explaining the Evolution of Primate Dominance Hierarchies: Socioecological Models Conclusion Cross-References References Primate Economic Strategies Primate Gesture Definition Introduction Primate Gestures Intentional Communication Relevance to the Origins of Language Gesture Development and Social Cognition Pointing and Other Nonverbal Deictic Signals Conclusion Cross-References References Primate Menopause Synonyms Definition Introduction Great Apes Baboons Macaques New-World Monkeys Conclusion Cross-References References Primate Object Permanence Primate Sexual Behavior Primate Sexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction Primate Socio-Sexual Ecology Sexual Behavior of Solitary Species Sexual Behavior of Pair-Bonded Primates Sexual Behavior of Polyandrous Primates Old World Monkeys Sexual Behavior of Uni-male Groups Sexual Behavior of Multi-male Groups Apes´ Sexuality Rape in Orangutans Gorillas and Incest Behavior Bonobo Sex for Resources and Sex as a ``Social Vehicle´´ Other Relevant Aspects of Primate Sexuality Consorting Copulation Dynamics Sperm Competition Sperm Plugs Sneakers and Rape Extra-Pair Copulation Male Masturbation Female Masturbation Homosexual Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Primate Sperm Competition Definition Introduction Sperm Quality Ejaculate Physiology and Frequency Social Organization Male Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Primate Tool Use Synonyms Definition Introduction Stick Tools and Foraging Hammers and Anvils for Foraging Fluid Transportation Climbing and Other Motion Assists Agonistic Encounters Using ``Weapons´´ Conclusion Cross-References References Primates Priming Paradigm Primitively Eusocial Primogeniture Principles of Geology Cross-References References Prior Relationships Prisoner´s Dilemma Prisoner´s Dilemma and Cooperation Synonyms Brief Definition Introduction The Prisoner´s Dilemma Solution 1: Repeated Interactions Solution 2: Kin Selection Solution 3: Cooperative Assortment Solution 4: Communication and Coordination Multilevel Selection and the Evolution of Cooperation Limitations of the PD for Understanding Cooperation Conclusion Cross-References References Prisoner´s Dilemma Outcomes Synonyms Definition Introduction Prisoner Dilemma Scenarios in the Repeated Prisoner´s Dilemma Mutual Cooperation/Mutual Defection Sucker´s Payoff and Temptation to Defect Conclusion Cross-References References Prisoner´s Dilemma, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Prisoner´s Dilemma Game Conclusion Cross-References References Privileges of the Human Brain Proactive Aggression Proactive Homicide Proactive Murder Probability Probability of Anger Probability of Fertilization Probability Theory Probing Tools Problem of Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction Formal Definition of Altruism Altruism in the Real World Alternative Definitions of Altruism Altruism and Multilevel Selection Short-Term Altruism Evolutionary and Psychological Altruism Does Psychological Altruism Exist? Case Study of Human Altruism: Behavior in Economic Games Conclusion Cross-References References Problem of Cheating Synonyms Definition Introduction Theory and Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Problem of Genetic Inheritance, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Alternative Strategies Conditional Adaptation Gene-Environment Correlation Gene-Environment Interactions Epigenetic Modification The Missing Heritability Problem Conclusion Cross-References References Problem Solving Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Problems Problem Solving Strategies Problem Solving Methods Obstacles and Aids in Problem Solving Neuropsychology of Problem Solving Cross-References References Problem Solving Ability Problems of Assessing Fertility Synonyms Definition Introduction Physiological Measures Basal Body Temperature (BBT) Cervical Mucus Monitoring Counting Methods Hormonal Methods Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Measurement Estrogen-to-Progesterone (E/P) Ratio Conclusion Cross-References References Problems with Group Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Alternative Explanations for Group Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Procedural Knowledge Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Perspective of Procedural Knowledge Gibson´s Theory Nonhuman Species and Evolvement of Knowledge Conclusion Cross-References References Procedural Learning Procedures for Dealing with Bullies Synonyms Definition Introduction Definition of Bullying Prevalence of Bullying Evolutionary History of Bullying Motivations for Bullying During Development Psychological Effects of Bullying on Victims Procedures for Curbing Bullying Conclusion Cross-References References Procreation Procreative Ethics Procryptic Resemblance Producing Young Production Production of Eggs and Sperm Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolution of Sex-Differentiated Gametes From Asexual to Sexual Reproduction The Origins of Gamete Dimorphism, or Males and Females Intrasexual and Intersexual Selection Drives Production of Large Numbers of Tiny Sperm to Compete for Access to Valuable Femal... Conclusion Cross-References References Professor Professor of Political Science and Public Policy Profet Progenicide Progression Progressive Progressive Learning Projected Confidence Synonyms Definition Introduction Self-Enhancement Attractiveness Coercion Conclusion Cross-References References Prolificacy Promiscuity Promoting Paternity (You Look Like Your Father Phenomenon) Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Propagation Proprietariness Proprietary Mate Retention Tactics Proprioception Synonyms Definition Introduction The Role of Proprioception Proprioception and Rehabilitation Testing Proprioception at Sport Proprioception Training Techniques Proprioception and Consciousness Conclusion Cross-References References Prosocial Prosocial Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Proximate Causes of Prosocial Behavior Other-Regarding Preferences: Helping and Sharing Other-Regarding Concern: The Role of Empathy Ultimate Causes of Prosocial Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Pro-social Behavior Pro-social Emotions Prosocial Norms Prosociality Prosodic Protolanguage Prosopagnosia Synonyms Definition Introduction Prosopagnosia and Modularity of the Mind Conclusion Cross-References References Prosopagnosia (Face Recognition) Synonyms Definition Introduction Clinical Chartacteristics Conclusion Cross-References References Prospective Mates Synonyms Definition Introduction Self-Esteem and the Selection of Mates Narcissism and Prospective Mates Conclusion Cross-References References Prostitution Synonyms Definition Introduction History of Prostitution Regulation and Control Service and Deviation Customer Preferences Male Prostitution An Evolutionary Perspective Conclusion Acknowledgment References Prostitution and Legal Regulation of Sex Synonyms Definition Introduction Prostitution and Evolution Legal Regulation of Sex Conclusion Cross-References References Prostitution and Women´s Short-Term Mating Synonyms Definition Introduction What´s in it for the Woman? Daddy Issues Sex Ratios How Much to Charge? Conclusion Cross-References References Protected Values Protection and Evolution Protective Resemblance Protolanguage Proto-Language Proto-Sapiens Protosyntax Synonyms Definition Introduction Emerging Languages Modern Languages Conclusion Cross-References References Proto-tool Synonyms Definition Introduction Fixed Anvils How Different Is Proto-Tool Use from True Tool Use? Conclusion Cross-References References Prototypical r-/K-Selected (Fast/Slow) Species Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Is There So Much Life History Variation? Life History Theory r-K Strategies Extending the r-K Dichotomy: The Fast-Slow Continuum Beyond Dichotomies: The Fast-Slow and Reproductive Strategies Conclusions Cross-References References Proto-World Provisioning Proximate and Ultimate Explanations Proximate Behavior Proximate Versus Ultimate Explanations Psychiatric Darwinism Psychiatry of Nonhuman Apes Synonyms Definition Introduction Measurement Challenges and Potential Solutions Homologous Features in Individual Differences and Expression of Behavioral Symptoms Behavioral and Psychopharmacological Interventions Conclusions Cross-References References Psychic Unity Synonyms Definition Introduction History of the Concept The Philosophical Origins of the ``Psychic Unity´´ Idea Human Variation in Times of Biological Racism The Search for Universals in the Rising Psychological and Cultural Sciences Ideas of Psychic Unity in (Anthropological) Linguistics The Biological Foundations of the Idea of Psychic Unity Contemporary Debate on the Idea of Psychic Unity Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Psychodynamic Foundations Definition Introduction Psychodynamic Roots to Attachment Theory An Alternative Motivational Theory An Alternative Method Similarities Between Attachment Theory and Psychoanalysis Attachment Theory and Psychoanalysis Today Conclusion Cross-References References Psychodynamic Theory Psycholinguistics Psychological Altruism Psychological Determinism Synonyms Definitions Introduction Psychology Studies That Appear to Undermine Human Agency, via Deterministic Forces Social Pressure ``It Was Not Me, It Was My Brain´´ The Illusion of Conscious Will? Reasons and Causes Quantum Mechanics and Determinism Conclusion References Psychological Disorder Psychological Evidence for Human Sperm Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Copulatory Desire Adjustment Distress upon Sexual Refusal and Sexual Coercion Sexual Stimuli Preferences Conclusion Cross-References References Psychological Mechanisms Psychological Reasoning Psychologist Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction The Psychology Behind the Trolley Problem Conclusion Cross-References References Psychology of Reciprocal Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction Cognitive Building Blocks Partner Identification Individual Recognition Attributes of Payoffs Quantification Inhibitory Control Time Lag Memory for Actions Memory for Individuals Patience Language Emotional Building Blocks Donor Emotions Sympathy and Empathy Trust and Betrayal Anger and Moralistic Aggression Recipient Emotions Gratitude Guilt Conclusion Cross-References References Psychology of the Ovulatory Cycle Psychoneuroimmunology Psychopathology Psychopathology Versus Adaptation Synonyms Definition References Psychopathy Synonyms Definition Introduction Psychopathy in Context A Calloused Mind: How Does Psychopathy Develop? Adaptation or Disorder: Is Psychopathy and Advantage? Callous by Design? Natural Selection and Psychopathic Traits Conclusions Cross-References References Psychopathy (Mealey) Synonyms Definition Introduction Psychopaths in Society Terminology What Is a Primary Psychopath? What Is a Secondary Psychopath? Preventative Measures Conclusion Cross-References References Psychophysics Psychoses Psychosis Synonyms Definition Introduction Psychosis Conclusion Cross-References References Psychotic Puberty Puberty in Boys Synonyms Definition Introduction Puberty: Regulation, Variability and Pathology Conclusion References Puberty in Girls Synonyms Definition Introduction Development and Puberty Within a Life History Approach Typical Characteristics of the Human Life History and Sexual Differentiation During Puberty Sequence of Puberty in Girls in the Context of Mammalian and Primate Evolution Sexual Bimaturism, Sexual Dimorphism in Size and Shape, and the ``Fat Spurt´´ Sequelae of Puberty in Girls and Variation in its Timing Genetic and Environmental Influences on the Timing of Puberty in Girls Significance of Variation in the Timing of Puberty in Girls and Its Sequelae Conclusion Cross-References References Pubescence Public Archives Public Behaviors Public Display of Altruism Public Documents Public Goods Public Goods Game Public Othermindedness Public Records Synonyms Definition Introduction Availability and Use of Public Records Types of Public Records Online Resources for Public Records The Evolution of Societies and the Need for Public Records Freedom of Information Act Issues with Availability of Public Information Use of Public Records Future Research in Evolutionary Psychology Using Public Records Conclusion Cross-References References Public Register Public Written Material Pulsastion of the Heart Pulse Rate Punish Punishment Punishment I Punishment II Punitive Sentiment Synonyms Definition Introduction How does Punishment Evolve? Group-Selection Accounts of Punishment ``Big-Mistake´´ Explanations of Punishment Individual-Level Benefits of Punishment How Is Punishment Studied in the Lab? Motives Underpinning Punishment Punitive Sentiment Reflects Fairness Concerns Punitive Sentiment Reflects Desire for Revenge Conclusion References Purpose Pursuit Deterrence Hypothesis Puzzle of Altruism, The Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Pyrexia Q Qualitative Versus Quantitative in Evolutionary Science Synonyms Definition Introduction The Art or The Real? Conclusion Cross-References References Quality of a ``Catch´´ Quality of Attachment Quality Versus Quantity Quantity Estimation Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Quantity Representation Quantity Versus Quality of Offspring Synonyms Definition Introduction Ecological Conditions Affecting Reproductive Trade-Offs Environmental Harshness Environmental Unpredictability Offspring Quality Versus Quantity Preferences in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Quasisocial Queasiness Questionnaire R R = Coefficient of Relatedness Synonyms Definition Introduction Calculating the Coefficient of Relatedness: r Conclusion Cross-References References R and K Strategies r Strategy r/K-Selection Strategies Race as a Social Badge (Kurzban) Synonyms Definition Introduction Race Perception and Encoding: A Badge for Social Categorization Conclusion Cross-References References Race Encoding Race Prejudice Racial Discrimination Racial Group Relationships Racial Identity Racism Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Categorization and Discrimination Evolution and Modern-Day Racism Conclusion Cross-References References Racism and Prejudice Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Categorization and Prejudice Race Encoding and Racial Identification Racial Discrimination Conclusion Cross-References References Radical Behaviorism Raiding Random Effects Randy Thornhill Definition Introduction Open vs Closed: Opportunities or Threats? Conclusion Cross-References References Rank Rank Order Ranking Rape Synonyms Definition Introduction Rape Costs Theories of Rape Conclusion Cross-References References Rape and Dating Synonyms Definition Introduction Natural Selection, Sexual Selection, and the Ancestral Environment Aggressive Behavior, Narcissism, and Social Hierarchy Date-Rape and Adolescents Conclusion Cross-References References Rape Avoidance Synonyms Definition Introduction Rape Avoidance Mechanisms Measuring Rape Avoidance Behavior Individual Differences in Rape Avoidance Conclusion Cross-References References Rape in Warfare Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Background Reproductive Advantages in Warfare Psychological Associations between Mating and Warring Conclusion Cross-References References Rate of Death and Disability Rate of Learning Rational Actors Synonyms Definition Introduction Homo Economicus Conclusion Cross-References References Rationality Reaction Norms and Tokens Synonyms Definition Introduction Distinguishing Genotype and Phenotype from Reaction Norms Tokens Significance of Human Reaction Norms to Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Reactive Aggression Reality-Incongruent Beliefs Reasoning About Social Norms Reasons to Punish Wrongdoers Recalibration Theory of Anger Definition Introduction The Evolutionary Biology of Animal Conflict Function of Anger How Do Humans Represent Conflicts of Interests? The Welfare Trade-Off Ratio Computational Design of Anger Sketch of the Computational Structure of Anger The Recalibrational Theory and Features of Anger The Triggering Conditions of Anger Factors that Trigger Escalation of Anger Bargaining Aggression The Function of the Anger Face Cooperative Withdrawal The Content of Anger-Based Arguments Conclusion Cross-References References Recall Recall of Cheaters Synonyms Definition Introduction A Memory Focused on Cheaters? Empirical Testing of Reputational Recall Violation of Social Expectations Personal Relevance to Expectation Violations Conclusion Cross-References References Recessive Genes Definition Introduction Recessive and Dominant Genes Directional Dominance Overdominace Conclusion Cross-References References Reciprocal Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction Background Trivers´ Model Cheater Detection and the Evolution of Human Emotional Systems Conclusion Cross-References References Reciprocal Altruism (Middle-Level Theory in Evolutionary Psychology) Synonyms Definition Introduction Prisoner´s Dilemma Tit-for-Tat and Related Strategies Direct Reciprocity Indirect Reciprocity Network Reciprocity Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis Examples Vampire Bats Primates Mobbing Behavior and Nest Protection Conclusion Cross-References References Reciprocal Altruism and Cooperation for Mutual Benefit Synonyms Definition Introduction Indirect Fitness Benefits or Kin Selection Direct Fitness Benefits The Free-Rider Problem By-Product Mutualisms Direct and Indirect Reciprocity Conclusions Cross-References References Reciprocal Altruism and Group Living Synonyms Definition Introduction Reciprocal Altruism Conclusion Cross-References References Reciprocal Altruism, Dyadic Cooperation Among Genetically Unrelated Individuals Reciprocal Cooperation Reciprocal Grooming Reciprocal Rewards Reciprocity Recognition Recollection Reconciliation Synonyms Definition Introduction Consolation Conclusion Cross-References References Recounting Recreation Red Queen Hypothesis, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Red Queen Hypothesis and it´s Relevance Conclusion Cross-References References Red Queen´s Race Redistribution of Resources Redistribution Preferences and Low Socioeconomic Status Synonyms Definition Introduction The Influence of SES on Redistributive Preferences Income Education Employment Perceived Mobility and Personal Narrative Explaining SES´s Subdued Influence on Redistribution Greed and Optimism Neoliberal Intellection Confusion Delusion Natural Justice Conclusion Cross-References References Reduction of Predation Reductionism Reeve (Female Ruff) Reflexive Conditioning Reflexive Response Regulation of Body Temperature Synonyms Definition Introduction Gender Differences in Human Thermoregulation Body Temperature in Obesity Conclusion Credits of Pictures Cross-References Acknowledgment References Reichert-Gaupp Theory Reichurt-Gaupp Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction What the Theory Postulates Conclusion References Reinforcement Delivery Reinforcement Schedule Synonyms Definition Introduction Methodology for Measuring Responses Under Different Reinforcement Schedules Ratio Reinforcement Schedules Interval Reinforcement Schedules Comparison of Different Reinforcement Schedules Conclusion Cross-References References Rejected Children Synonyms Definition Introduction Characteristics of Rejected Children Victimization School Adjustment Psychosocial Adjustment Conclusion Cross-References References Rejection Rejection Thresholds Synonyms Definitions Introduction Rejection Thresholds in Hosts Conclusion Cross-References References Relatedness Relatedness Coefficient Relatedness Parameter Relational Relational Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Correlates of Relational Aggression Development Childhood Adolescence and Young Adulthood Adulthood and Older Adulthood Consequences, Implications, and Applications Conclusion Limitations and Future Directions Treatment and Intervention Cross-References References Relational Bullying Relational Uncertainty Synonyms Definition Introduction From Paternity Uncertainty to Relationship Uncertainties The Prevalence of Paternity Discrepancy Conclusion Cross-References References Relational Understanding Relational Value Relation-Between-Relations Relationship Between Culture and Race Synonyms Definition Introduction Race as a Social Rather than Biological Construct Evolutionary Explanations for Race Relationship Between Culture and Race Conclusion Cross-References References Relationship Between Sexuality and Gender Synonyms Definition Introduction Causes of Gender Differences Gender and Sexual Behavior Gender and Sociosexuality Gender Variance and Diversity Conclusion Cross-References References Relationship Certainty Relationship Choices and Sexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction Relationship Choice Emergent Relationships Conclusion Cross-References References Relationship Closeness Relationship Dissolution Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Evolution and Relationship Dissolution Pursuit of Novelty Habituation and Sensitization Hunter-Gatherer Innovations: Marriage, Father, and Family Relationship Dissolution in Foraging Societies Relationship Dissolution After the Agricultural Revolution The Coolidge Effect The Coolidge Effect in Therapeutic Practice Relationship Dissolution Today Birth Control No-Fault Divorce Prenuptial Agreements Financial Independence of Women Alimony and Child Support Welfare for Women and Their Children Decline in the Power of Religious Prohibitions Social Acceptance of Cohabitation Custody Conclusion Cross-References References Relationship Longevity Relationship of Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences and Social Sciences Relationship Outcomes Relationship Pattern Relationship Satisfaction and Commitment Synonyms Definition Introduction Relationship Satisfaction Factors Influencing Relationship Satisfaction Relationship Commitment Conclusion References Relationship Status Synonyms Definition Introduction Relationship Status: Online Activities Implications of Relationship Status Evolution and Relationship Conclusion Cross-References References Relationship Violence Relationships Relative Brain Size, Encephalization Quotient Definition Introduction Review Overview Brain Size, Brain-Body Size Ratio, and Encephalization Quotient The Size of Specific Brain Regions as Alternative Neuroanatomical Measures of Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Relative Parental Investment Relative Sex Distinction Relatives Relativism Relevance of Evolved Interests to Modern Morality Synonyms Definition Introduction The Explanatory Promise of Evolutionary Psychology Morality as an Adaptation Conclusion Cross-References References Reliability and Deception in Language Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Language and Honest Signalling Theory Voice Pitch as an Honest Signal Vocabulary Size as an Honest Signal Reputational Consequences of Dishonest Signalling Conclusion Cross-References References Reliability, Efficiency, and Economy Definition Introduction Criteria for Adaptations Further Developments Conclusion Cross-References References Religion Synonyms Definition Introduction Near Universal Features of Religion Religion as an Adaptation: Society as Organismic Religion as a By-product: From Hyperactive Agency Detection to Mating and Attachment Conclusion Cross-References References Religion and Development of Civilization Religion and Religious Beliefs Religion and Sexuality Religiosity Religious Beliefs Synonyms Definition Introduction Supernatural Agents and Counterintuitive Beliefs Moralizing High Gods Costly Displays and Rituals Conclusion Cross-References References Religious Building Design Religious Teachings Synonyms Definition Introduction Religious Teachings Regarding Reproduction at Societal Level Religious Teachings Regarding Reproduction at Individual Level Conclusion Cross-References References Religious Terrorism Religious Views Remating Reminiscence Repeated or Iterated Prisoner´s Dilemma Synonyms Definition Introduction Game Theory and Its Behavioral Ally Prisoner´s Dilemma and Public Goods Evolutionary Mechanisms May Explain Game-Theoretic Violations To Cooperate with Humans, Computers Need to Integrate Evolutionarily Salient Variables Conclusion Cross-References References Replicating Entities of Culture Replication Representational Mental States Reproduction Synonyms Definitions Introduction Advantages of Sexual Reproduction Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction The Evolution of Sexual Reproduction Evolution of Two Biological Sexes Sex Differences in Early Development Sex Differences in Later Development Ultimate Explanations for Sexual Dimorphism in Humans Sexual Strategies Theory Strategic Pluralism Theory Pair-Bonding as an Adaptation for Reproduction Philosophy and Reproduction Is Modern Life Changing Reproduction? Conclusions Cross-References References Reproduction, Suicide, Euthanasia Synonyms Definition Introduction Reproduction Suicide Euthanasia Conclusion Cross-References References Reproduction+ Reproductive Aging Reproductive Benefits Must Outweigh Costs Reproductive Cell Size Reproductive Coercion Reproductive Competition Reproductive Competition Among Members of the Same Sex Reproductive Costs Reproductive Development Reproductive Fitness Reproductive Frequency Definition Introduction Orgasm and High Frequency Sex Cross-References References Reproductive Limitations Reproductive Maturation Reproductive Parasite Reproductive Potential Reproductive Roles Reproductive Skew Reproductive Skew Theory Reproductive Strategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Development of Reproductive Strategies Sex Differences in Reproductive Strategies Conclusion Cross-References References Reproductive Strategy Reproductive Success Reproductive Suppression and Sexual Conflict During Mating Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Reproductive Timing Synonyms Definition Introduction Temporal Synchronization Seasonal Breeding Cyclical Breeding Induced Ovulation Continuous Breeding Spatial Proximity Internal Versus External Fertilization Spatial Proximity and Insemination Conclusion Cross-References References Reproductive Value Reproductive Value and the Evolution of Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Reproductive Variance Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Selection Bateman´s Principle Parental Investment Theory Modern Research Conclusion Cross-References References Repulsion Reputation Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Overview: Suicide Terrorism and Reputational Benefits to Kin Conclusion Cross-References References Reputation and Altruism Synonyms Definitions Introduction Altruistic Reputations Conclusion Cross-References References Reputation as a Context for Men´s Aggression Against Men Synonyms Definition Introduction Status, Hierarchy, and Other Related Constructs Accessing Resources for Survival Accessing Mates Aggression Between Groups Building a Reputation Conclusion Cross-References References Reputational Memory Rescue Rescuing Friends and Relatives Synonyms Definition Introduction Helping Relatives Helping Friends Conclusion Cross-References References Rescuing Strangers Synonyms Definition Introduction Costly Signaling Theory and Rescuing Strangers Conclusion Cross-References References Research Methods Researcher Researchers Resemblance Synonyms Definition Introduction Facial Resemblance and Paternal Investment Adoption and Facial Resemblance Conclusion Cross-References References Resentment Residual Reproductive Value Resistance to Welfare Policies Resisted Mating Resisted Matings Resolution Resource Availability Resource Competition Resource Control Resource Defense Synonyms Definitions Introduction The Logic of Economic Defensibility Variation in Human Resource Defense Variation Across Space Variation Over Time Differential Defense Across Resources Group-Level Territoriality and Collective Action Problems Conclusions Cross-References References Resource Holding Potential Resource Limitation Resource Provision Resource Scarcity Synonyms Definition Introduction Literature Review Conclusion Cross-References References Resource Selection Resource-Defense Polygyny Resource-Holding Potential Resources Synonyms Definition Introduction Resources as a Signal of Parental Investment Males´ Signal Resources to Attract Mates Females Are Attracted to Signals of Resources in Mates Females Are Attracted to Signals of Willingness to Share Resources Conclusion Cross-References References Resources for Brain Development Synonyms Definition Introduction Resources and Experience Resources in Development Nutrition as a Lifelong Resource for Brain Development Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Conclusion Cross-References References Respect Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia Respondent Bias Respondent Conditioning Response Bias Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Common Response Biases Conclusion Cross-References References Response Inhibition Responsibility for Child Suffering Synonyms Definition Introduction Responsibility for Harm Conclusion Cross-References References Restricted Reproductive Potential Retaliation Retina, The Definition Introduction The Vertebrate Retina Conclusion Cross-References References Retribution Rett Syndrome Reunion Revenge Revulsion Reward Rhinencephalon Rhodesian Man Ribonucleic Acid Richard Dawkins on Constraints on Natural Selection Introduction Time Lags Historical Constraints Trade-offs Available Genetic Variation Imperfections at One Level Due to Selection at Another Level Mistakes Due to Environmental Unpredictability Further Constraints: Antagonistic Pleiotropy and the Conflict Between Survival and Reproduction Conclusion Cross-References References Richard Lewontin and Stephen Jay Gould References Richard Wrangham Definition Introduction Kasiisi Project and Kibale Chimpanzee Project Recent Research Books Conclusion Cross-References References Riddoch-Syndrome Right and Wrong Right and Wrongs Righteousness Rising Life Expectancy Risk Risk Attitude Risk Aversion Risk Contract of War Risk Factors Synonyms Definitions Introduction Types of Risk Factors Evolution of Risk Factors Distribution of Risk Factors Risk Factors: Clinical Implications Risk Factors: Implications in Prevention Risk Factors: Research Implications Risk Factors: Statistical Relevance Conclusion Cross-References References Risk of a Lifetime, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Risk of a Lifetime Conclusion Cross-References References Risk of Conception Synonyms Definition Introduction Mating Psychology Intrasexual Competition Perceptions Conclusion Cross-References References Risk of Illness Risk Propensity Risk Spread Risk Variation Risk Variation with Parent Age Synonyms Definition Introduction Altruistic Filicide Filicide Due to Mental Illness Unwanted Child Filicide Accidental/Fatal Abuse Filicide Retaliation/Spouse Revenge Filicide Infanticide and Neonaticide Conclusion Cross-References References Risk-Taking Risky Behavior Synonyms Introduction Exploring Risky Behavior in a Life-History Framework Understanding the Role of Risky Behavior in Mate Attraction Measuring Risky Behaviors Within Evolutionary Content Domains Conclusion Cross-References References Rite of Passage Synonyms Definition Theoretical Framework Conclusion Cross-References References Rites Ritual Ritual and Speech Coevolution Synonyms Definition Introduction The Problem of Cooperation in Communication Cross-References References Rituals Synonyms Definition Introduction In-Group Functionality of Religious and Cultural Rituals Coming-Of-Age Rituals Religious Burial Rituals Rituals and Health Conclusion Cross-References References Rivalry Rivka Weinberg Definition Introduction Part One: Metaphysics of Life and Death The Nonidentity Problem Existence as a Precondition for Interests Common Moral Principle Part Two: Reproductive Ethics Procreative Justice Procreative Conflict of Interest Rawlsian Contractualism Theories of Parental Responsibility Voluntary Commitments Intent to Raise Genetics/Gestation The HazMat Theory Transfer of Parental Responsibility Gamete Selling and Donation The Love Obligation Conclusion Cross-References References RNA Synonyms Definition Introduction RNA Structure Functions Protein Synthesis Gene Regulation Significance in Diseases Diseases Involving mRNA Metabolism Diseases Involving miRNA and siRNA Diseases Involving lncRNA Conclusion References Robert Axelrod Synonyms Definition Education and Awards Research and Publications Conclusion Cross-References References Robert Axelrod´s (1984) The Evolution of Cooperation Definition Introduction Theoretical and Empirical Basis Characteristics of Robust Successful Strategies Spatiotemporal Patterns of Cooperation Implications for Promoting Cooperation Implications for Evolutionary Biology Conclusion Cross-References References Robert Hinde References Robert Kurzban Definition Introduction Career Conclusion Cross-References References Robert Kurzban on Group Processes Synonyms Definition Introduction Cognitive Mechanisms and Group Processes Conclusion Cross-References References Robert Trivers Synonyms Definition Introduction Early Life and Education 1943-1966 Academic Career at Harvard 1966-1978 Reciprocal Altruism Parental Investment Theory 1972 Trivers-Willard Effect 1973 Parent-Offspring Conflict 1974 Haplodiploidy and the Evolution of Social Insects Deceit and Self-Deception University of California, Santa Cruz, 1978-1994 Social Evolution 1985 Mate Choice Fluctuating Asymmetry Rutgers University 1994-2017 Genetics Self-Deception Current Research Interests Honors and Awards Wild Life Conclusion Cross-References References Robin Baker and Mark Bellis Synonyms Definition Introduction Baker and Bellis Studies Conclusion Cross-References References Robin Baker and Mark Bellis: Pioneers of Research on Human Sperm Competition Definitions Introduction The Collaborative Decade (1985-1995) Kamikaze Sperm (1988) Ejaculate Adjustment During Copulation (1989) Frequency of Human Sperm Competition (1989-1990) Female Promotion of Sperm Competition (1990) Ejaculate Adjustment During Copulation and the Function of Male Masturbation (1993) Female Orgasm (1993) Final Joint Publication (1995) Post-collaborative Publications Legacy: Growth of a Field, Support, and Opposition Conclusion Cross-References References Role Role of Experience in Tool Use Synonyms Definition Introduction Previous Experience vs. Training Cognitive Mechanisms Involved in Tool Use Conclusions Cross-References References Roles Romantic Attachment Synonyms Definition Introduction How Romantic Attachment Differs and Develops from Infant-Caregiver Attachment Romantic Attachment as Evolved Mechanism Measurement of Romantic Attachment Linking Romantic Attachment and Relationship Outcomes Individual Differences in Romantic Attachment Age Differences Sex Differences Cultural Differences Sexual Orientation Conclusion Cross-References References Romantic Attachment and the Prototype Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Childhood and Romantic Attachment: Similarities and Differences Theoretical Background of the Prototype Hypothesis Empirical Evidence for the Prototype Hypothesis with Regard to Romantic Attachment Romantic Attachment and Retrospective Measures of Childhood Attachment Romantic Attachment and Prospective Studies of Attachment Beginning in Early Childhood Conclusion Cross-References References Romantic Desirability Romantic Identity Romantic Kissing Romantic Love Romantic Rejection Ronald Aylmer Fisher Fisher´s ``Sociological Views´´ Eugenics and the Question of Race References Room-Sharing Rotation Injury Rough and Tumble Roy Baumeister Overview Honors and Awards Research Activity Areas of Research of Special Interest to Evolutionary Scientists Protégés Postdoctoral Fellows Graduate Students Visiting Graduate Students Educational Background Employment History References Royal Lineages Ruff Sandpiper Ruff Shorebird, The Synonyms Definition Introduction General Biology Breeding Alternative Reproductive Tactics Conclusion Cross-References References Rule Rule Extraction Rule of Law Rule Violations Checked If High Status Synonyms Definition Introduction High-Status Individuals and Cheaters Complexities in Cheater Detection The Many Faces of Status Conclusion Cross-References References Rule Violations Not Checked If Low Status Synonyms Definition Introduction Low-Status Individuals and Cheaters Complexities in Cheater Detection, Defining Status, and Enforcing Rules Conclusion Cross-References References Rules Violations Rule-Utilitarianism Ruling Class Rumination Rumor Spreading Runaway Selection Runaway Sexual Selection Runaway Tram Running Rushton, J. Philippe Cross-References References S Sacred Values Synonyms Definition Introduction Sacred Values Conclusion Cross-References References Sacredness/Purity/Disgust Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Sadism Sadness Safety in Numbers Sahelanthropus Salience of Category Synonyms Definition Introduction Salience of Social Categories and Stereotyping Salience of Social Categories and Intergroup Behavior Salience of Social Categories, Diversity, and Team Performance Conclusion Cross-References References Salience of Social Categorizations Salter, Grammer, and Rokowski (2005) Synonyms Definition Introduction Tactics to Rise in the Hierarchy Tactics of Subordinates Sex Differences in Subordinate Tactics Conclusions Cross-References References Salty Same Sex Aggression Same-Different Categorization Synonyms Definition Introduction Demonstrating Sameness/Difference Concepts in Nonhumans Conclusion Cross-References References Same-Different Concepts Same-Gender Parents Sameness Judgements Same-Sex Behavior Same-Sex Coalitions That Exclude Women Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Background Male Coalition Building Coalitional Functionality Conclusion Cross-References References Same-Sex Friend Synonyms Definition Introduction Kin Selection and Same-Sex Friendships Reciprocity and Same-Sex Friendships Conclusion Cross-References References Same-Sex Friendships Synonyms Definition Introduction Same-sex Friendships Benefits and Costs of Same-Sex Friendships Similarities and Differences in Males´ and Females´ Same-Sex Friendships Explaining Sex Differences in Same-Sex Friendships Same-Sex Friendship and Well-Being Conclusion Cross-References References Same-Sex Homicide Synonyms Definition Introduction Violence and Sexual Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Same-Sex Murder Same-Sex Relationships Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Origins Adaptive Significance Homophilic Peer Preferences Sex Differences in Communication Styles Conclusion Cross-References References Same-Sex School Bullying Synonyms Definition Introduction Goals of Same-Sex School Bullying Parental Investment and Sexual Selection Same-Sex School Bullying in Boys Same-Sex School Bullying in Girls Conclusion Cross-References References Same-Sex Sexual Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Same-Sex Sexual Behavior Prevalence Rates Among Men Prevalence Rates Among Women Risk for HIV Conclusion Cross-References References Same-Sex Sexuality Sanctions Sanctity Sarah Blaffer Hrdy Definition Introduction Personal Biographical History Infanticide The Woman That Never Evolved On Mothering On the Importance of Others Conclusions Cross-References References Sarah Brosnan Synonyms Definition Introduction Monkeys React to Unequal Pay Conclusion Cross-References References SAS Satisfaction with Life Savagery Savanna Hypothesis and Landscape Preferences, The Definition Introduction Stages of Exploration Weather Patterns and Seasonal Transitions Landscape Preferences Conclusion Cross-References References Savanna Hypothesis, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Savanna Hypothesis Landscape Features Tree Shapes Leaves Cliffs Conclusion Cross-References References Savannah Savoriness Savory Scaffolding in Learning Synonyms Definition Introduction Development of Scaffolding Parental Scaffolding Scaffolding in the Classroom Limitations of Scaffolding and Recommendations to Use It Effectively Conclusion Cross-References References Scaling Factors Scares Scarification Synonyms Definition Introduction Scarification as a Right of Passage Badges of Honor Conclusion Cross-References References Scavenge Hunting Schadenfreude Synonyms Definition Introduction Origins of Schadenfreude Enjoying Potential Romantic Rivals´ Downfalls Enjoying Out-Group Misfortunes Conclusion Cross-References References Schematic Memory Schizophrenia Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Accounts of Schizophrenia Conclusion Cross-References References School Bullying Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Perspectives on Bullying Social Ecological Theory Evolutionary Theory General Strain Theory Who Is Involved in School Bullying? Bully Victim Bully-Victim Bystander Prevalence Rates Types of School Bullying Physical Bullying Verbal Bullying Relational Aggression Cyberbullying Impact of Bullying on Youth Effective Prevention and Intervention School-Wide Bullying Prevention Targeted Prevention and Intervention Intensive School-Based Intervention Additional Considerations Conclusion Cross-References References School Climate School Context School Culture School Environment Synonyms Definition Introduction Aspects of the School Environment Assessment Variations in the School and Classroom Environment Association of the School Environment with Student and Teacher Outcomes Academic Outcomes Externalizing Problem Behavior Students´ Psychological Well-Being Students´ Health Behaviors Teacher Stress and Burnout Intervention Research Relating Genetic Dispositions and the School Environment The View of Evolutionary Psychology on the School Environment Gene-Environment Correlations and Interactions Conclusion Cross-References References Science and Morality Synonyms Definition Introduction Computational Heuristic Models Moral Condemnation by Third Parties Tripartite Theory of Machiavellian Morality The Evolution of Fairness by Partner Choice Moral Alliance Strategies Theory Universal Moral Grammar Moral Foundations Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Science and Religion Compatibility Definition Introduction Perspectives, History, Studies, and Resources How Has the Perception of the Relationship Between Science and Religion Developed Over Time? What Are Some Ways in Which Science and Religion Intersect? In What Ways Have Empirical Methods Been Used to Study Religion and Spirituality? A Representative List of Resources with a Focus on Science and Religion Conclusion Cross-References References Scientific Scope Hypothesis, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Boundary Conditions on the Scope of Generalizations Decision Context Research Studies on Scope Hypothesis The Self-Study The Mother Study Conclusion Cross-References References Scott Atran Synonyms Definition Introduction Sacred Values and Conflict Resolution Symbolic Concessions Real-World Applications Conclusion Cross-References References Sea Slug Search Latency Search Time Synonyms Definition Cross-References References Seasonal Breeding Second Language Acquisition Second Sexism Synonyms Definition Introduction The Second Sexism Sex Differences and Second Sexism Conclusion Cross-References References Secondary Adaptation Secondary Sex Characteristic Secondary Sex Characteristics Secondary Sex Traits Secondary Sexual Characteristics Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolution of Sexual Characters as Weapons by Means of Male-Male Competition The Evolution of Secondary Sexual Characteristics as Ornaments by Means of Female Choice Conclusion Cross-References References Secondary Sexual Characters Secondary Sexual Traits Secure Attachment Definition Introduction Secure Attachment Conclusion Cross-References References Seeking Extra-Pair Partners Synonyms Definition Introduction Extra-Pair Copulations Downsides of EPCs Reasons for EPCs Male-Female Differences Change and the Future Conclusion Cross-References References Segments Selected Effect Selection Selection by Consequences Selection for Cooperative Relationships Synonyms Definition Introduction Selection Pressures for Cooperation Mechanisms for Cooperation Identifying and Selecting Cooperative Partners Conclusion Cross-References References Selection in Relation to Sex Selection Pressures as a Function of Age Synonyms Definition Introduction Historical Origins Age-Related Selection and Aging Hamilton´s Forces of Natural Selection Evidence Implications Conclusion Cross-References References Selectionist Models: Implications for Behavior Synonyms Definitions Introduction Deconstructing a Common Misconception A Natural Relation Between Modern Behavioral and Evolutionary Theory But What About the Brain and Information Processing? But What About Cognitive Psychology and Information-Processing? Conclusion Cross-References References Selective Attending Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Selective Attention Selective Attunement to Adaptive Problems Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Cognition and Survival Threat Conclusion Cross-References References Selective Breeding Selective Focus Selective Imitation Self Determination Self-Agency Self-Aggrandizement Self-Annihilation Self-Assessment Self-Assessment of Fighting Ability Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Foundation Minimizing Costs of Competition Characteristics of Rival Assessment Characteristics of Self-Assessment Cross-References References Self-Awareness Self-Beneficial Political Attitudes Synonyms Definition Introduction The Classic Puzzle About the Influence of Self-Interest on Political Attitudes An Evolutionary Approach to the Concept of Self-Interest and Political Attitudes Genetically Selfish Goals and Inclusive Interests The Debate Over Self-Interest and Political Attitudes Continues Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Concept Synonyms Definition Introduction Fluidity in Self-Concept Social Identity Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Concept and Family Self-Concept Determined by Relatives Self-Consciousness Self-Control Self-Deception Synonyms Definition Introduction Early Interest in Self-Deception Development of an Evolutionary Theory of Self-Deception Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Defense Self-Defense and Female-Perpetrated Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction Motivation for Violence Self-Defense Retaliation Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Destruction Self-Domestication Self-Efficacy, Animal Phobias, and Evolutionary Mismatch Synonyms Definition Introduction Self-Efficacy: An Adaptive Mechanism Against Animal Threats Evolved Self-Efficacy and Zoophobias in the Modern World Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Enhancement Self-Enhancement Relative to Others Synonyms Definition Introduction Self-Enhancement and Relationships with Others Self-Enhancement in an Evolutionary Context Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Esteem Self-Esteem and Perceived Social Value Self-Esteem and Social Status: Dominance Theory and Hierometer Theory? Synonyms Definitions Introduction Dominance Theory Hierometer Theory Empirical Evidence for the Link Between Social Status and Self-Esteem Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Esteem as a Status-Tracking Mechanism Synonyms Definition Introduction Perspectives on Self-Esteem Introduction to Sociometer Theory Multiple Domains The Mating Sociometer Attachment Theory The Extended Informational Model of Self-Esteem Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Esteem as Manipulative Status Communication Synonyms Definition Introduction Sociometer Theory Ethological Theory Terror Management Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Esteem as Self-Perceptions of Social Worth Self-Esteem Feelings Self-Esteem Increase Motivates Similar Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Rationale for Self-Esteem Learning, Motivation, and Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Esteem Reflects Assessments of Valuation Synonyms Definition Introduction Global Self-Esteem Reflects Perceived Global Relational Value Domain-Specific Self-Esteem Reflects Perceived Domain-Specific Relational Value The Attunement of Global Self-Esteem to Domain-Specific Self-Esteem Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Esteem Tracks Mate Value Synonyms Definition Introduction Self-Esteem and Romantic Relationships Self-Perceived Mate Value Experimental Studies Other-Rated Mate Value Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Esteem Tracks Social Evaluation and Relational Value Synonyms Definition Introduction Self-Esteem: The Sociometer Hypothesis Domain-Specific Sociometers Evolutionary Mismatch and Self-Esteem Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Evaluation Self-Evaluations Track Perceived Mate Value Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Comparison and Mate Value Self-Esteem as a Global Self-Evaluation Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Examination Self-Harm Selfhood Self-Inflicted Suicide Self-Injury Self-Insight Self-Interest Selfish Selfish Gene, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Gene-Centered View of Life: Replicators and Gene Machines The Evolution of Altruism Memes: The Cultural Replicators Conclusion Cross-References References Selfish Genetic Elements Selflessness Self-Monitoring Synonyms Definitions and Conclusions Investigating Self-Awareness The Paralimbic Network as a Signature of Self-Awareness and Conscious Self-Monitoring From Association to Causality Ontogenesis of Self-Awareness and Metacognition Pathophysiology Perspectives for Prevention and Treatment Cross-References References Self-Murder Self-Observation Synonyms Definition Introduction Self-Observation as a Social Process Self-Observation and Consciousness Self-Observation Within Psychotherapy Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Other Bias Self-Perceptions Self-Recollection Self-Referent Processing Self-Reflection Self-Regard Self-Reinforcing Choice Self-Reported Data Self-Reports Synonyms Definition Introduction The Value of Self-Reports in Evolutionary Psychology Criticisms and Limitations of Self-Report Methods Addressing the Limitations of Self-Report Methods Conclusion References Self-Sacrifice Self-Scrutiny Self-Stereotyping Synonyms Definition Introduction Self-Stereotyping by Sex Evolutionary Reasoning on Own-Sex/Gender Self-Stereotyping Conclusion Cross-References References Self-Thought Self-Worth Semantic Content Semantic Memory Semelparity Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolution of Semelparity Semelparity and K-Selection Conclusion Cross-References References Semen Semen and Vaginal Chemistry Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Semen Displacement Semen Familiarity Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Semen from In-Pair Partner Synonyms Definition Introduction Sperm Competition Psychological Effects of Semen Preeclampsia Risk and Semen Ingestion Conclusion References Semen Toxicity Synonyms Definition Introduction Males and Females Have Different Reproductive Strategies Seminal Proteins Are Critical Contributors to Reproductive Success Differences in Reproductive Strategies Impact Seminal Protein Evolution Semen Toxicity Occurs in Some Taxa and Likely Relates to the Sexes´ Differing Reproductive Strategies Conclusion Cross-References References Semen-Based Cost of Mating Semicircular Canals Synonyms Definition Introduction Structure of Semicircular Canals Function Otoliths Conclusion Cross-References References Seminal Fluid Seminal Plasma Synonyms Definition Introduction Compounds in Seminal Plasma Conclusion Cross-References References Semiotic Constraints Definition Introduction Semiotic Constraints on the Population Level Semiotic Constraints on the Biological Level Semiotic Constraints on the Evolutionary Level Semiotic Constraints on the Human Sociological Level Conclusion Cross-References References Semiotic Square Definition Introduction The Relevance of the Semiotic Square in Language Evolution Studies Conclusion References Senescence Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution and Stressors Stressors and Senescent Biology Stress-Limiting Systems Human Evolution and Variation Assessing Senescence Physiological Dysregulation and Senescence Frailty, a Clinical Syndrome of Functional Losses Senescence: An Evolutionary Trade-Off Stressors and Life Span Physiological Losses Male-Female Mortality Differentials Conclusion Cross-References References Sense of Powerlessness/Helplessness and Self-Destruction Sensitive Mothering Sensitive Period Sensitivity Sensitization Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Background Characteristics of Sensitization Long-Term Potentiation Kindling Drug Sensitization Conclusion Cross-References References Sensitizing Sensorimotor Play Synonyms Definition Introduction An Evolutionary Perspective Jean Piaget´s Theory Central Developmental Ideas Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Play Primary Circular Reactions Secondary Circular Reactions Tertiary Circular Reactions Object Permanence Conclusion Cross-References References Sensorimotor Stage Sensory Aphasia Sensory Bias Sensory Drive Sensory Exploitation Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Animal Mating Systems via Sensory Exploitation Perception and Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Sensory Trap Sentence Structure Sequential Hermaphroditism Sequential Tool Use Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence Cognitive Mechanisms Involved in Sequential Tool Use Conclusions Cross-References References Sequestered Ovulation Sequestration Serotonin and Dominance Synonyms Definition Introduction Serotonin and Social Hierarchy Serotonin Affects Facial Cues Recognition Serotonin Affects Voice Processing Serotonin Affects Aggression, Cooperation, and Affiliation Conclusion Cross-References References Serotonin Transporter Serotoninergic System Servant Leadership Service-for-Prestige Theory of Leader-Follower Relations Definition Introduction What Are the Characteristics of ``Bad´´ Versus ``Good´´ Leadership, and Why Does Leadership Quality Vary So Widely? Leader-Follower Relations Are Perceived as Good When They Involve Voluntary, Mutually Beneficial, Service-for-Prestige Exchange Conclusion Cross-References References Setting Settlement Sex Sex as a Mate Guarding Strategy Sex as Bonding Mechanisms Synonyms Definition Introduction Biological Mechanisms of Bonding Human Social Bonding Facilitated Through Sexual Behavior Conclusion References Sex Categorization Sex Cell Size Sex Changing Sex Difference in Reproductive Success Variance Sex Differences Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences After Having Children Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences for Pursuing Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Do We Engage in Infidelity? Is the Gap Closing? Limitations Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Ability to Assess Fighting Ability Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Gender-Gap in Offending Social Influences on Offending Cultural and Community Influences Peer Influences Family Influences Biological Influences on Offending Neurological Influences Hormones Genetics Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Anger Proneness Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Anger Components of Anger Sex Differences in the Elements of Anger Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Attachment Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Attachment Sex Difference in Adult Attachment Conclusions Cross-References References Sex Differences in Attractiveness of Humor Synonyms Definition and Introduction Theoretical Suggestions on Why Humor Is Perceived as an Attractive Trait Major Findings on Sex Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Cognitive Development Synonyms Definition Introduction Gender Differences in Language Abilities Why Gender Differences in Cognitive Development? Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Commitment Skepticism Definition Cross-References References Sex Differences in Costs and Benefits of Mate Poaching Sex Differences in Crying Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Frequency and Duration Across the Life Span Sex Differences in Types of Crying and Self-Reported Reasons for Crying Causes of Sex Differences in Crying Conclusions Cross-References References Sex Differences in Cyber Bullying Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Cyberbullying Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Death by Filicide Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Perpetrators of Filicide Sex Differences in the Victims of Filicide Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Death by Homicide Synonyms Definition Sexual Selection and Male Homicide Homicide Rates and Individual Difference Variables Intimate Partner Violence, Uxoricide, and Honor Killings Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Emotional Communication Synonyms Evolution of Emotional Communication Sex Differences in the Perception of Emotional Signals Sex Differences in the Production of Emotional Signals and Their Consequences Conclusion References Sex Differences in Guarding Behavior Sex Differences in Human Mate Preferences (Buss, 1989) Introduction Overview Limitations and Reflections Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Inferring Sexual Interest Definition Cross-List: Error Management Theory References Sex Differences in Intimate Partner Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction Intimate Partner Violence Definition and Typology Intimate Partner Violence Assessment Causal Factors of Intimate Partner Violence Interaction of Proximal and Ultimate Causation Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Jealousy Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Difference in Emotional Versus Sexual Jealousy Jealousy as an Evolved Sex-Specific Mechanism Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Lachrymation Sex Differences in Lacrimation Sex Differences in Long-Term Mating Preferences Women´s Specialized Long-Term Mating Psychology Men´s Specialized Long-Term Mating Psychology Conclusion References Sex Differences in Mental Rotation Sex Differences in Morbid Jealousy Synonyms Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Navigation Synonyms Definition Introduction Spatial Cognition in Women and Men Home Ranges Reproductive Roles Sexual Division of Labor Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Parenting Sex Differences in Parenting and Parental Investment Synonyms Definition Introduction Background Anisogamy Mating Opportunity Cost Paternity Uncertainty Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Participation Synonyms Definition Introduction Gender Schema Theory Sex Differences in Political Participation Sex Differences in Sports Participation Sex Differences in Mathematics Participation Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Pursuit Synonyms Definition Introduction Male/Male Competition Female/Female Competition Dominance Versus Prestige Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Same-Sex Aggression Definition Introduction Evolution and Aggression The Evolution of Sex Differences How Do the Sexes Differ in Terms of Aggression? Sex Differences in Direct Aggression Sex Differences in Indirect Aggression Sex Differences in Other Aggression Related Areas Explaining the Sex Difference: Male and Female Competition Risk and Fear Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in SDO Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex and SDO SDO and the Gender Invariance Hypothesis Causes for Sex Differences in SDO Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Sexual Socialization Synonyms Definition Introduction Parental Influence Cultural Influences Abusive Influence Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Sexual Versus Emotional Jealousy Sex Differences in Short-Term Mating Preferences Evidence of Women´s Specialized Short-Term Mating Psychology Men´s Specialized Short-Term Mating Psychology Conclusion References Sex Differences in Sobbing Sex Differences in Social Development Synonyms Definition Introduction Parental Socialization Same-Sex Peer Groups Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Spatial Abilities Synonyms Definition Introduction Real-World Significance Etiology of Sex Differences in Spatial Ability Conclusions Cross-References References Sex Differences in Spatial Information Processing Sex Differences in Spatial Rotation Sex Differences in Spatial Visualization Sex Differences in Standard Deviation Sex Differences in Three-Dimensional Processing Sex Differences in Variability Sex Differences in Variance Sex Differences in Variance Traits Synonyms Definition Introduction Potential Causes of Sex Differences in Variance Genetics: X Chromosome Polygyny: Sex Difference in Fitness Variance Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences in Visuospatial Ability Sex Differences in Weeping Sex Differences Versus Gender Symmetry Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Relationship Duration Preference Long-Term Mate Preferences Short-Term Mate Preferences Criticisms and Responses to Criticisms of Evolutionary Perspectives on Mate Preferences Compromises in Mate Preferences Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Differences, Initiating Gossip Synonyms Definition Introduction Gossip as an Adaptation to Overcome Adaptive Problems Gossip as an Intrasexual Competition Strategy Sex Differences in Initiating Gossip Episodes Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Ed Sex Education Sex Education in Schools Synonyms Definition Introduction The Need for Sex Education in Schools Goals of Sex Education Content and Characteristics of an Effective Sex Education Program Future Directions Conclusion References Sex Effect Sex Hormone Sex of Offspring Sex Ratio Synonyms Definition Introduction Mating Strategies Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Ratio and Men´s Long-Term Mating Synonyms Definition Introduction Mating Behavior and Sex Ratios Empirical Evidence Discussion Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Reversal Sex Segregation Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Segregation Causes and Consequences of Sex Segregation Sex Segregation and Social Change Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Similarities Sex Steroid Hormones Sex Switching Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Sex Switching Protandry Protogyny Bidirectional Conclusion Cross-References References Sex Trade Sex Typing Sex Work Sex, Power, and Conflict Introduction Definitions Evolution Relating Sex, Power and Conflict The Biological Battle of the Sexes Marital Conflict Sexual Harassment Offenders and Victims of Sexual Coercion The Feminist Perspective Is Rape About Sex or Violence? Substance Use and Its Impact on Perception and Behaviour Sexual Politics Conclusion Cross-References References Sex-Biased Parental Investment Sex-Biased Transcription Sex-Differences in Disease Avoidance Synonyms Definition Introduction Disease Avoidance Disgust Differences in Disgust and Disease Avoidance Functional Reasons for Sex Differences in Disgust Sensitivity Conclusion Cross-References References Sex-Differentiated Behavior Sexism Synonyms Definition Introduction Control of Female Sexuality Coevolution of Men´s Intrasexual Competition and Women´s Partner Preferences Conclusion Cross-References References Sexism Against Male Sex-Role Inventory, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) Debate Over Bem´s Sex-Role Inventory Conclusion Cross-References References Sex-Specific Link Between Self-Esteem and Mate Value Synonyms Definition Introduction Physical Attractiveness and Self-Esteem Social Status and Self-Esteem Experimental Research Conclusion Cross-References References Sexting Definition Introduction Motives Risks Associated with Sexting Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Abuse Synonyms Definition Introduction Prevalence Intraindividual Effects Psychological Distress: Adapting to Trauma Neurobiological Effects: The Impact of Stress Identity Impairment and Emotion Regulation Cognitive Disturbances Interindividual Effects Social and Relational Difficulties Attachment and Negative Relational Schemas Revictimization Sexuality Social Context: How Culture and Society Shape SA and Its Effects Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Abuse in the Workplace Sexual Access Synonyms Definition Introduction Parental Investment and Sexual Selection Gang Membership and Sexual Access Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Access and Friendship Synonyms Definition Introduction Twentieth-Century Views on Sexual Access and Friendship Modern Views on Sexual Access and Friendship Friends-With-Benefits Relationships Back-Burner Relationships Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Access as Benefit of Victory in War Synonyms Definition Introduction Adaptation vs By-Product Hypotheses on Male Coalitional Violence and Sexual Access Prediction One: Coalitional Violence Has Been Ancient and Widespread Prediction Two: Coalitional Violence Will Be Perpetrated by Males Prediction Three: Male Coalitional Violence Increases Sexual Access to Women Direct Access Indirect Access Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Access as the Reason For going to War Sexual Access During Warfare Sexual Access Manipulation Sexual Access Manipulations Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Reward in the Afterlife Intrasexual Competition Limitations of Sexual Access Manipulation Models Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Activities Sexual Aggression Sexual and Reproductive Development Synonyms Definition Introduction In the Beginning Beyond Father Absence Testing the Puberty Prediction Genetics, Gene-Environment Interaction, and Differential Susceptibility The Distinctive Influence of the Father Conceptualizing the Environment Mechanisms of Influence Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Antagonism Sexual Antagonistic Co-evolution Sexual Antagonistic Selection Sexual Arousal Synonyms Definition Introduction Measuring Sexual Arousal: Genital Responses Measuring Sexual Arousal: Subjective Sexual Arousal Sexual Arousal Patterns Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Assault Sexual Assault and Intimate Partner Violence Synonyms Definitions Introduction Theoretical and Empirical Review Behavioral Genetics of IPV and Sexual Assault: (Epi)Genetic Differences Matter Intimate Partner Violence as a Form of Sexually Coercive Mating Effort Extra-Pair Copulation and Sperm Competition: Sexually Coercive IPV as an Anti-Cuckoldry Tactic in Men Men´s Pornography Preferences, Sperm Competition, and Sexual Coercion of a Partner Rape: Adaptation or By-Product? Are Sexually Coercive Men Competitively Disadvantaged, Mate Deprived, Both, or Neither? Use of Sexual Coercion in Both Sexes Life History Strategy, Antagonistic Social Strategies, and Sexual Coercion LH Strategy, Negative Androcentrism, and Mating Aggression Cross-References References Sexual Asymmetry Sexual Attitudes Sexual Attraction Sexual Aversions Sexual Avoidance Sexual Behavior Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Theories of Sexual Behavior Sexual Selection Social Mating Systems Mating Competition in Males and Females Interspecific Variation in Sexual Selection Parental Investment Costs of Reproduction and Life History Strategies Reasons for Sex? Specific Types of Sexual Behaviors Reproductive Sexual Behavior Nonreproductive Sexual Behavior Extended Sexuality Masturbation Extra-Pair Sex Sexual Harassment and Coercion Inbreeding Avoidance The Use of and Response to Erotica, Pornography, and Sexual Stimuli Same-Sex Sexual Behavior Prostitution Effects of Culture Conclusions Cross-References References Sexual Behaviors Sexual Coercion Sexual Coercion and Dating Synonyms Definition Introduction Forced In-Pair Copulation Evolutionary Evidence from Animal Research The Feminist Perspective Types of Men Who Sexually Coerce and Rape Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Coercion and Rape Synonyms Definition Introduction Measurement The Scale of Sexual Aggression Risk and Vulnerability Factors Consequences Conclusions Cross-References References Sexual Coercion and Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction Measuring Sexual and Physical Violence The Scale of Sexual and Physical Violence Official Statistics and Victimization Studies Research Studies Co-occurrence of Physical and Sexual Violence Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Coercion as a Mechanism of Sexual Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Forms of Coercion Female Counterstrategies to Coercion Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Conflict Sexual Conflict After Conception The Adaptive Function of Marital Dissatisfaction During Child-Rearing Violence During Pregnancy After Delivery: Resemblance to Kin as a Decision-Maker to Investment Problems After the First Child Four-Year Itch Transition to Parenthood (TTP) Sex After the First Child Infidelity and Jealousy Child Custody and Child Support Conflict References Sexual Conflict and Sex Differences in Parental Investment Cross-References References Sexual Conflict in Mating Strategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Roots of Sexual Conflict in Mating Stategies Sex Differences in Standards and Eagerness for Casual Sex Conflict Concerning if and when Sex Occurs Error Management Theory Sexual Aggressiveness Evidence for Female Antirape Adaptations Conflicts of Deception Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Conflict in Nonhumans Definition Introduction What Is Sexual Conflict? Who Is Involved in the Conflict? When Is There a Conflict? How Does Sexual Conflict Vary Depending on the Species´ Specific Mating Strategy? Causes of the Conflicts Causation Survival Value Ontogeny Evolution Summary and Concluding Remarks Cross References References Sexual Conflict Theory Sexual Conflict Theory (Middle-Level Theory in Evolutionary Psychology) Definition Introduction History Middle-Level Theory in Evolutionary Psychology Intralocus Sexual Conflict Interlocus Sexual Conflict Sexual Conflict Before Mating Sexual Conflict During Mating Sexual Conflict After Conception Limitations to Sexual Conflict Research Conclusions Cross-References References Sexual Congress Sexual Contact and Sexual Disgust Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex and Pathogens Pathogen Avoidance and Sexual Strategies Pathogen Avoidance and Mate Preferences Sexual Disgust: More Than Just Pathogens The Function of the Qualia Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Control Sexual Daydreaming Sexual Debut Synonyms Definition Introduction Rates and Timing Risks Factors Protective Factors Outcomes of Early Sexual Debut Further Considerations Conclusion References Sexual Deviation Sexual Differentiation Sexual Dimorphism Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Sexual Dimorphism Human Reproductive Ecology and Adaptations Development of Human Sex Differences Developmental Elaboration of Sexually Differentiated Socio-Competitive Competencies Conclusions Cross-References References Sexual Dimorphism and Sex-Biased Gene Expression Synonyms Definition Introduction Transcriptional and Phenotypic Sexual Dimorphism Are Correlated Sex-Biased Expression Evolves to Resolve Sexual Conflict Sex Steroids Regulate Sex-Biased Expression Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Dimorphism in Body Size Sexual Discrimination Sexual Exploitation at Work Sexual Expression Sexual Fantasies Definition Introduction How Are They Studied? Common Fantasies Rape Fantasies Theoretical Approaches and Sex Differences Conclusions Cross-References References Sexual Fantasy Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Fantasies Among the General Population Sexual Fantasies Among Sexual Offenders Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Fluidity Sexual Harassment Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Sexual Harassment Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Evolutionary Psychological Perspective Feminist Psychological Perspective Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Perspective and Sexual Harassment in the Workplace Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Identity Synonyms Definition Introduction Theories of Sexual Identity Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Imprinting Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolutionary Function of Sexual Imprinting Evidence for Sexual Imprinting in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Infidelity Versus Emotional Infidelity Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary View on Sexual Versus Emotional Infidelity Conclusions Cross-References References Sexual Initiation Sexual Injustice Sexual Intercourse Synonyms Definition Introduction Who Do Men and Women Prefer for Sexual Partners? Appearance How Often Do Men and Women Have Sexual Intercourse? Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Intimidation Sexual Jealousy Synonyms Definition Introduction Jealousy as an Adaptation Men´s Sexual Jealousy and Aggression Factors that Influence the Intensity of Jealousy and Aggression Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Jealousy Among Women Synonyms Definition Introduction The Adaptive Function of Women Sexual Jealousy Female Jealousy Specializations for Detecting Potential Rivals Women´s Mate-Guarding Behavior Women´s Intrasexual Competition and the Green-Eyed Monster Derogation of Competitors Women´s Aggression in Response to Sexual Jealousy Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Jealousy in Long-Term Relationships Definition Sexual Jealousy in Long-Term Relationships Cross-References References Sexual Life Sexual Manipulation Sexual Maturation Sexual Maturity Sexual Minorities Sexual Motivations of Gang Members Sexual Nature Sexual Onset Sexual Orientation Nature and/or Nurture Bisexuality and Evolutionary Strategies in Women and Men Proximate Mechanisms of Orienting: An Evolutionary-Developmental Enigma Experiments of Nature: Against Nurture? The Development of Sexual Preferences in Nonhuman Animals Orientation and Universal Darwinism References Sexual Orientation and Human Sexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Theories of Sexual Orientation Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Orientation Identity Sexual Outcomes Synonyms Definition Introduction Biological Outcomes Behavioral Outcomes Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Pathology Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Evolutionary Sexology? Determining Sexual Normality and Abnormality Is Independent from Contemporary Environmental, Societal, and Cultural Norms Emphasis of Individual Symptoms and their Relative Independence from Presently Valid Medical Diagnoses The Application of Knowledge from Classical Ethology, Human Ethology, and Evolutionary Psychology Nature/Nurture and the Innate/Acquired Together Complete the Final Result of Human Sexuality The Importance of the Phylogenetic History of Sexual Behavior, Variation, or Disorder Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Personality Sexual Preference Sexual Preferences Sexual Prejudice Sexual Prejudice (Personality Correlates of) Synonyms Definition Introduction Bases of Sexual Prejudice Personality and Individual Differences in Sexual Prejudice Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Promiscuity Sexual Receptivity Synonyms Definition Introduction Continuous Sexual Receptivity Sex Differences in Sexual Receptivity Hormonal Variation in Sexual Receptivity Cues to Sexual Receptivity Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Regret Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Psychological Theory of Casual Sex Regret Predictors of Casual Sex Regret Future Research and Unanswered Questions Conclusions Cross-References References Sexual Rejection Sexual Relations Sexual Reproduction Synonyms Definition Introduction The Origins of Sex The Problem of Sexual Reproduction Genetic Diversity as an Outcome of Sexual Reproduction Purging Bad Genes Pathogen Resistance Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Response Sexual Response Pattern Sexual Reverie Sexual Selection Sexual Selection and Humor Sexual Selection Hypothesis Sexual Selection Hypothesis of Infanticide Sexual Selection in Evolutionary Psychology Synonyms Definition Introduction Natural Selection Versus Sexual Selection The Science of Sex Appeal and Human Sexual Selection Intrasexual Competition Maladaptive-Seeming Traits that Are Adaptive for Sexual Selection Sexual Selection in the Animal Kingdom Costly Signaling in Humans How Humans Have Shaped Selection: Selective Breeding of Dogs and Cats Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Selection via Direct Male-Male Interactions Synonyms Definition Introduction Special Characteristics of Sexual Selection Versus Natural Selection Alternative Tactics Flexibility Versus Rigidity: Conditional Strategies Versus Evolutionarily Stable Strategies Female Acceptance Ubiquity of Alternative Strategies Why Male-Male Battles Are So Often Decided by Threats and ``Honest´´ and ``Dishonest´´ Signals Conflict Between Natural Selection and Different Types of Sexual Selection Exaggerated Traits and How to Measure Them Sexual Selection at Different Stages: Precopulatory, Copulatory, and Postcopulatory An Example of Conflict Between Types of Sexual Selection: The ``Beautiful Weapons´´ of Fiddler Crabs General Lessons General Significance for Psychobiology Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Self Sexual Signal Sexual Signaling During Ovulation Synonyms Definition Introduction Attractiveness and Cycle Voluntary Signals? Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Signalling Sexual Size Dimorphism Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Size Dimorphism Evolutionary Hypotheses for Sexual Size Dimorphism Sexual Size Dimorphism in Humans and Other Primates Intralocus Sexual Conflict over Body Size Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Socialization Definition Introduction Parents Peers Media Reflections to Consider in Future Research Conclusion References Sexual Stigmatization Synonyms Definition Introduction The Sexual Double Standard Historical Context Early Sexual Double Standard Research More Recent Work Theoretical Frameworks Current Research Conclusion Cross-References References Sexual Strategies Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction The Two Major Axes of Sexual Strategies Theory The Psychology of Short-Term Mating for Men and Women The Psychology of Long-Term Mating for Men and Women Mating Psychology Is Context Dependent Conclusions Cross-References References Sexual Timing Sexual Trauma Sexual Unfaithfulness Sexual Variants Sexual Versus Emotional Infidelity Sexual Versus Emotional Jealousy Sexual Violence Sexuality Sexuality and Birth Sexuality Education Sexuality in Community Sexuality in Neighborhood Sexually Accepting Sexually Antagonistic Genetic Variation Sexually Antagonistic Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Antagonistic Selection in Animals The Sexually Antagonistic Hypothesis in Humans Empirical Data Models Tested Conclusion Cross-References References Sexually Antagonistic Polymorphism Sexually Communicable Disease/Infection Sexually Dimorphic Gene Expression Sexually Explicit Material Sexually Transmitted Infection Sex-Work Sexy Son Hypothesis Synonyms Definition Introduction Controversies and Obstacles for the Hypothesis Testing The Sexy Son Hypothesis in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Sexy Sons Hypothesis Shamanism Shaping Synonyms Definition Introduction Skinner´s First Experiments and the Invention of the Term ``Shaping´´ The Shaping Procedure Behavior Modification Using Shaping Conclusion Cross-References References Shared Genetic Material Sharing Shelter and Protection She-Male Shifting Dominance Definition Introduction Hierarchy Formation Conclusion Cross-References References Short and Long Term Preferences Shortcomings in the Origin of Species Related to Darwin´s/Wallace´s Theory of Natural Selection Shortcomings of the SSSM Definition Introduction The Methodologies of the Social Sciences The Ten Steps of the SSSM A Short History of the SSSM Shortcomings in the Methodology of Economics Why Has the SSSM Remained So Persistent? Criticisms of Tooby and Cosmides´ Account of the SSSM Conclusion Cross-References References Short-Term Mating Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Short-Term Mating Strategies Short-Term Mating Strategy Showing-Off Shunning Siblicide Synonyms Definition Introduction Factors that Influence the Likelihood of Siblicide Conclusion Cross-References References Sibling Sibling Comparison Sibling Configuration Sibling Conflict Synonyms Definition Introduction Sibling Conflict Theory: Predicting Likelihood of Competition Versus Cooperation Factors That Affect the Prevalence and Intensity of Sibling Conflict Conclusion Cross-References References Sibling Constellation Sibling Design Sibling Method Sibling Order Sibling Position Sibling Position Effects Sibling Relationships Sibling Rivalry Sibling Spacing Sibling Studies Synonyms Definition Introduction Twin Designs Differential Sibling Exposure Design Conclusion Cross-References References Sibling Violence Siblings Synonyms Definition Introduction Kin Selection Theory Sibling Rivalry Birth Order Conclusion Cross-References References Siblings Pose Unique Adaptive Problems Synonyms Definition Introduction Birth Order and Development Sibling Relationship Quality Niche Picking Conclusions Cross-References References Sibships Synonyms Definition Introduction Recognizing Siblings Conflict Among Siblings Quality-Quantity Trade-Off Cooperation Between Siblings Sibling Relations Throughout the Life Course Conclusions Cross-References References Side Effect Sidetrack Sign Language Synonyms Definition Introduction Sign Language Acquisition Sign Language Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Signal Reliability Synonyms Definition Introduction Alignment of Signaler and Receiver Interests Nonalignment of Signaler and Receiver Interests Why Are Signals Typically Reliable When Signaler and Receiver Interests Do Not Align? When Is Deception Expected? Conclusion Cross-References References Signaling Signaling Body Dimensions Signaling Theory Signals Signals of Body Size Synonyms Definition Introduction Acoustic Cues to Body Size Visual Cues to the Body Size Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Significance of Helping Synonyms Definition Introduction What Is Helping? Why Do We Help? Who Is More Likely to Help? Conclusion The Significance of Helping Cross-References References Signs Silent Ovulation Silly Silver Fox Domestication Experiment Synonyms Definition References Similar Tools Are also Called Slickers and Burnishers in Modern Leather-Work Similarity Similarity Selection Simile Simon Baron-Cohen (Darwinian Psychiatry) Definition Introduction Proposed Cognitive Model from ``Mindblindness´´ The Eye Direction Detector The Shared Attention Mechanism The Theory of Mind Mechanism The Autism Connection Eyes and Emotions Autism and ``Extreme Male Brain´´ Autism Assessment: The ``Autism Quotient´´ Intervention Conclusion Cross-References References Simple Phobias Simulating Orgasm Single Parent Single Person Single Trial Learning Single-Male Group Single-Male Troop Single-Male/Multi-female Group Single-Mother Families Synonyms Definition Introduction Causes of Single Motherhood and Its Effects on Mental Health and Employment Single-Mother Households and Child Outcomes Conclusions Cross-References References Single-Subject Experimental Design Sister Sisters Situational Awareness Situational Behavior Size Size and Dominance Synonyms Definitions Introduction Selection for Size Size and Dominance in Males Size and Dominance in Females Conclusion Cross-References References Size Dimorphism Size Dimorphism and Locomotion Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Size Dimorphism in Hominins SSD in Ancestors of Modern Humans Bipedalism and SSD: Intrasexual Competition and Male Body Size Bipedalism and SSD: Selection on Female Size Through Reproduction Conclusion Cross-References References Skew Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Models of Reproductive Skew Transactional Models Compromise Models Synthetic Models Skew Theory Applied to Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Skinner Box, the Synonyms Definition Introduction The Skinner Box Design Uses of the Skinner Box in Research The Evolution of the Skinner Box in the Digital Era Conclusion Cross-References References Sleep-Wake Cycles Synonyms Definition Introduction Brain and Function Disruption Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References Smacking Small Infants Small-Band Hunter-Gatherers Smarties Task, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Variations Conclusion Cross-References References Smoother Snail Sneak Copulation Synonyms Definition Introduction Description Conclusion Cross-References References Sneak Copulation as an Alternative Mating Strategy Synonyms Definition Introduction Sneaking as a Reproductive Tactics Phenotypic and Life History Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Sneaker Sneaker Males Sneaking Sneaky Mating Snivelling Sobbing Sobriety Social Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction: Theoretical Perspectives Who´s Involved and What´s the Prevalence? Effects Prevention and Intervention Conclusion Cross References References Social Anxiety Synonyms Definition Introduction Different Theories of the Evolution of Social Anxiety Disorder General Discussion of the Theories A Cognitive Therapy Approach Conclusion Cross-References References Social Anxiety Disorder Social Authority Synonyms Definition Introduction The Emergence of Social Authority Conclusion Cross-References References Social Avoidance Social Belonging Social Bias Social Bond Social Bonding Social Bonds Social Brain Hypothesis Social Categorization Social Categorization by Age of Faces Synonyms Definition Introduction Categorization by Age of Faces Function of Age Categorization Consequences of Age Categorization Conclusion Cross-References References Social Categorization by Race Social Change Social Closeness Social Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Cognition as an Adaptation Sociality and the Evolution of Human Cognition: Four Hypotheses Uniquely Human Social Cognition The Structure of Social Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References Social Cognition and Communication in Chimpanzees and Bonobos Synonyms Definition Introduction The Species Social Development and Behavior Social Cognition Cooperation Theory of Mind Social Learning and Culture Communication Gestures Vocalizations Facial Expressions Conclusion Cross-References References Social Communication Social Communication Disorder Social Comparison Synonyms Definition Introduction Theory of Social Comparison Social Comparison - An Evolutionary Perspective Social Comparison in Mating Social Comparison in the Modern World Evolutionary Mismatch Social Media and Modern Societies Conclusion Cross-References References Social Competence Social Complexity Hypothesis Social Conditions Social Consequences of Initiating Gossip Synonyms Definition Introduction Providing and Gathering Information Group Protection Strengthening Bonds Social Status Conclusion Cross-References References Social Constructionism Social Context Synonyms Definitions Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Social Contract Rule Violation Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Social Cooperation Social Cues Social Customs Social Darwinism Synonyms Definition Introduction Natural Selection Contemporary Social Darwinism Cross-References References Social Development Synonyms Definition Introduction Humanity´s Inheritances Social Development in Primal Societies Social Development in Civilized Societies Differences Between Civilized and Primal Societies Cross-References References Social Development in Nonhuman Primates Synonyms Definition Introduction Normative Development Interindividual Variation Conclusion Cross-References References Social Dilemma Social Disabilities Synonyms Definition Introduction Autism Spectrum Disorder Rett Syndrome Social Communication Disorder Social Anxiety Disorder Conclusion Cross-References References Social Disorganization Theory Social Dominance Social Dominance and Sexual Access Synonyms Definition Introduction Dominance and Resource Holding Potential Mate Choice Glucocorticoids and Their Impact on Reproductive Processes The Importance of Reproductive Skew Dominance, Sexual Access, and Human Societies Conclusions Cross-References References Social Dominance Hierarchy Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) Synonyms Definition Introduction The Construct of Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) Dimensionality Predictive Power of SDO Distinctions Between SDO and Related Constructs SDO Is Contingent upon Hierarchical Position but Is also a Stable Trait Interpretation of Low SDO Scores Evolution of Dominance and Egalitarianism Evolution of Sex Differences in Social Dominance Orientation Conclusion Cross-References References Social Dominance Reduces Fighting Synonyms Definition Introduction Conflict and Dominance Conclusions Cross-References References Social Dominance Structure Social Emotion Evolution Social Evolution Social Exchange Social Exchange Algorithms Social Exchange Among Non-kin Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Exchange Among Non-kin Conclusion Cross-References References Social Exchange Theory Definition Introduction Background and Principles of Social Exchange Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Social Exclusion Social Exclusion or Rejection Social Factors and Crime Social Grooming Social Groups Social Habit Development Social Hierarchies Synonyms Definition Introduction Individual-Level Fitness Benefits of Social Hierarchy Dominance and Prestige: Two Evolved Mechanisms to Navigate Social Hierarchies Group-Level Fitness Benefits Conclusion Cross-References References Social Hierarchy Social Hypotheses of Homophobia Synonyms Definition Introduction Religiosity, Fundamentalism, and Right-Wing Authoritarianism Gender, Gender Role, and Masculinity Are Heterosexual Homophobes Secretly Attracted to Homosexuals? Homophobia as a Culturally Driven Phenomenon? Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Social Identity Social Identity Formation Social Inclusion or Acceptance Social Information Processing Social Intelligence Hypothesis, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Origins of the SIH Social Intelligence in Primates Social Correlates with Brain Size in Primates Defining Social Complexity Summary: Primates Are Specialized for Social Intelligence Testing the SIH in Non-primates Mammals Birds Fish Invertebrates Conclusion Cross-References References Social Interaction Social Interaction Source Social Isolation Social Knowledge Social Learning Definition Introduction Cognitive Load Theory An Update of the Theory Aligned with Evolutionary Psychology The Link Between Cognitive LoadTtheory and Geary´s Evolutionary Cognition Theory Biological Primary Knowledge Biological Secondary Knowledge Discovery Learning Versus Explicit Instruction? Schooling, Observation, and Learning Domain General and Domain-Specific Knowledge A Collective Memory Through Socialization Cross-References References Social Learning and Culture Social Learning and Social Cognition Synonyms Definition Introduction Language and Social Cognition Language and Social Learning Social Interaction is Cultural Interaction Language and Culture Individualistic Versus Collectivistic Cultures Loose Versus Tight Cultures Low Context Versus High Context Communication Horizontal Versus Vertical Cultures Conclusion Cross-References References Social Learning in Mate Choice Social Learning of Mate Preferences Social Learning Theory Social Media Synonyms Definition Introduction Current Theories of Social Media Usage and Effects The Evolutionary Basis of Social Media Use and Effects Social Media Hijacks Our Evolved Social Psychology Harmful Outcomes of Social Media Use Conclusion Cross-References References Social Monitoring Social Monogamy Social Networks Social Neuroscience of Self-Categorization Synonyms Definition Introduction Self-categorization in Social Psychology The Social Neuroscience Approach to Self-categorization The Brain Structures Involved in Neural Processing of Self-categorization Neural Processing of Self-categorization: Key Findings Conclusion Cross-References References Social Neuroscience of Social Identity Social Norm Social Norm Violation Social Norms Social Organization Social Outcomes and Sex Ratio Synonyms Definition Introduction Potential Mechanisms Methodological Issues Conclusion Cross-References References Social Partner Choice Social Phobia Social Play Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Play - An Overview Social Play Interactions During Childhood Massively Multiplayer Online Games The Neurobiology of Social Play Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Social Playing Social Problem Solving Social Psychologist Social Psychology Social Rank Social Rank and Fitness Social Ranking Social Reasoning Social Reasoning Affected by Rank (Mealey, Daood, Krage, 1996) Synonyms Definition Introduction Dominance Theory Is Social Reasoning Affected by Social Rank? Is Memory for Cheaters Affected by Social Rank? Conclusion Cross-References References Social Rejection Social Relations Theory (Fiske) Synonyms Definition Introduction Communal Sharing Authority Ranking Equality Matching Market Pricing Conclusion Cross-References References Social Relationships Social Reputation Synonyms Definition Introduction The Social Ecology of the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness Reciprocal Altruism The Emergence of Social Reputation Conclusion Cross-References References Social Responsibility Social Roles Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Roles and Role Theory Multiple Roles and Psychological Adjustment Conclusion References Social Sanctions Social Science Social Signal Social Signals Social Skills Synonyms Definition Introduction Main Text Conclusion Cross-References References Social Source Memory Social Standing Social Stature Social Status Social Status and Economic Resources Synonyms Definition Introduction Preference for Social Status Preference for Economic Resources Conclusion Cross-References References Social Status: Prestige Social Structure Social Support Social Thinking Social Tool Definition Introduction Social-Target Tool Use Social-Means Tool Use Social-Means-Target Tool Use Conclusion Cross-References References Social Value Social Values Synonyms Definition Introduction Emergence of Identity Within Culture Embodiment of the Self in the Community Rites of Passage The Role of Honor Code Development Levels for Compliance and Ethics Conclusion Cross-References References Social Withdrawal in Childhood Synonyms Definition Introduction Defining Social Withdrawal Social Withdrawal as Evolutionarily Maladaptive Survival and Reproduction Childhood Peer Interactions and Relationships Happiness, Health, and Individual Well-Being Can Certain Subtypes of Social Withdrawal Be Adaptive? Future Directions: Considering Context Culture Computer-Mediated Communication Conclusions Cross-References References Social/Contextual Factors Sociality Socialization Socialization Processes Synonyms Definition Introduction Features of Socialization in Childhood The Role of the Child The Nature of Values Intuitive Morality Domains of Socialization Conclusion References Sociobiology Controversy Sociobiology Debate Sociobiology Wars, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Dissecting the Sociobiology Debate Evolutionary Psychology, the New Sociobiology? Sociobiology and Sociology Cross-References References Sociocultural Theories of Language Sociocultural Theories of Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction Cultural Approaches Social Learning Theory Subcultures of Violence Theory The Culture of Honor Thesis The Civilizing Process Social-Structural Approaches Social Disorganization Theory Strain Theory Conclusions Cross-References References Socioeconomic Flattening Socioeconomic Status Socioendocrinology Sociogenomics Sociometer Sociometer Hypothesis Sociometer Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction The Nature of Self-Esteem and Its Function The Mating Sociometer Conclusion Cross-References References Sociometric Status Sociomoral Emotion Sociopathy Sociosexual Behavior in Primates Sociosexual Orientation Sociosexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction Sociosexuality Measures Theories of Sociosexuality Cross-Cultural Differences in Sociosexuality Sociosexuality and Other Individual Differences Sociosexuality and Mating Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Sociosexuality and Sexual Conflict in Mating Strategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences in Sociosexuality Conflict About the Occurrence and Timing of Sex Sexual Aggression Individual Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Solidarity Solitude Solution to Paternity Uncertainty Synonyms Definition Introduction Paternal Assurance Tactics Insemination Prevention Counter Insemination Strategies Pregnancy Termination Strategies Postpartum Investment Strategies Conclusion Cross-References References Somatic Maintenance Somatosensory System Son/Daughter Soprano Sororicide Sound Generation Sound Perception Soundwaves Direction Sour Source Memory Source Memory Advantage for Faces of Cheaters Southern Cultures of Violence Space, Time, and Number Synonyms Definition Introduction Key Features of Space, Time, and Number Adherence to Weber´s Law Increasing Precision Throughout Development Neural Activation Representing Small Versus Large Values: Two Distinct Systems Cross-Domain Interference Cross-Domain Transfer Basic Quantitative Processing and Academic Achievement Does a Common Magnitude System Exist? Conclusion Cross-References References Spandrel Spandrels Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Spanking Synonyms Definition Introduction A Historical Perspective Theoretical Framework What Is Spanking? Prevalence of Spanking To Spank or Not to Spank: Effects of Spanking Externalizing Effects Internalizing Effects Cognitive Effects Cultural Considerations on Spanking as a Disciplinary Practice Alternative Strategies Build Knowledge and Awareness Early Education and Intervention Laws and Social Norms Conclusion Cross-References References Spatial Abilities Spatial Mapping Synonyms Definition Introduction Environmental Influences on Spatial Mapping Neural Correlates of Spatial Mapping Conclusion References Spatial Navigation Spatial Processing Spatial Reasoning Special Special Case of Bonobos and Female Counter-Adaptations to Rape Synonyms Definition Introduction Special Case of Sexual Coercion in Bonobos Socio-Spatial Interactions and Social Structure of Bonobos Role of Nonconceptive Sex and Less Honest Signals About Ovulation Self-Domestication Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Special Case: Autism Synonyms Definition Introduction Extreme Male Brain Theory of Autism Alternatives to the Mindblindness Theory of Autism Conclusion Cross-References References Special Friendships Among Baboons Synonyms Definition Introduction Male-Female Friendships in Baboons Adaptive Benefits of Friendships for Female Baboons Adaptive Benefits of Friendships for Male Baboons Conclusion Cross-References References Special Relationships Special Resemblance Specialization Specialized Cognitive Skills Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Cognition and Specialized Cognitive Skills Specialized Cognitive Skills and Functional Systems Theory Evolutionary Cognitive Neuroscience Conclusion Cross-References References Species Concepts Species Definitions Specific Brain Damage Synonyms Definition Introduction Brief History of Brain Damage and Neuroimaging Methods in the Detection of Specific Brain Damage Computed Tomography Magnetic Resonance Imaging Positron Emission Tomography Electrophysiological Techniques Neuropsychological Assessment Types of Brain Damage Acquired Brain Injuries Evolution of Pain and Neuroplasticity Conclusion Cross-References References Specific Friendships Synonyms Definition Introduction Nonexploitative Personality Traits Nonexploitative Personality Traits and Friendships Conclusion Cross-References References Specific Phobias Speech Speech Amplitude Speech Intensity Speech Loudness Speech Volume Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Sperm Sperm Allocation Sperm Choice Sperm Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Psychological Adaptations to Sperm Competition Sperm Competition and Pornography Sperm Competition and Female Orgasm Conclusion Cross-References References Sperm Competition in Birds Sperm Competition Risk and Partner Abuse Cross-References References Sperm Competition Tactics Synonyms Definition Introduction Precopulatory Tactics Postcopulatory Tactics Conclusion Cross-References References Sperm Competition Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Sperm Quantity: The Numbers Game Game Theory Models of Ejaculate Size and Expenditure Resolving Areas of Confusion Evidence that Sperm Competition Favors Greater Sperm Production Is Sperm Quality Sexually Selected? Conclusion Cross-References References Sperm Competition: Evidence in Nonhumans Synonyms Definition Introduction Sperm Competition in Invertebrates Sperm Competition in Vertebrates Conclusion Cross-References References Sperm Expenditure Sperm Plug Sperm Storage Definition Introduction Sperm Variables Necessary for Survival The Penis as a Sperm Displacement Device Conclusion Cross-References References Sphragis Spicy Food in Hotter Countries Spillover Effects Spillovers Spiritism Spirits Spiritualism Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Spirituality Split-Brain Patients Synonyms Definition Introduction Hemispheric Asymmetry and the Divided Brain Conclusion Cross-References References Spontaneous Abortion and Maternal-Fetal Conflict Synonyms Definition Introduction Spontaneous Abortion in Other Mammals Early Decision Making Fetal Response Conclusion Cross-References References Spontaneous Language Synonyms Definition Introduction Language Change and Diversification Creolization Biological Origin of the Language Faculty Iterated Learning Experiments Conclusion Cross-References References Spontaneous Problem-Solving Spontaneous Recovery Definition Introduction The Process of Spontaneous Recovery Conclusion Cross-References References Sports Spousal Abuse and Homicide: Byproduct Theory (Daly and Wilson) Synonyms Conclusion Cross-References References Spousal Abuse and Homicide: Evolved Homicide Module Theory (Buss) [Spousal Homicide] Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Squirrel Family Sciuridae SSSM Stable Cooperation Stages of Development Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion References Stages of Life Stalking Stammering Stamping In Standard Standard Model Standard Social Science Model Synonyms Definition Introduction The Main Assumptions of Standard Social Science Model Alternative Integrated Model Criticism of the View on Social Science Through the Lens of SSSM Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Standard Social Science Model, Tabula Rasa, Empiricism, Environmentalism Standing Tall Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales State Self-Esteem State-Sanctioned Punishment as Deterrent to Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction State-Sanctioned Punishment Conclusion Cross-References References State-Sanctioned Punishment as Substitute for Tribal Vengeance Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Punishment Conclusion Cross-References References Statistical Summary Status Status Acquisition Status and Dominance Hierarchies Synonyms Definition Introduction Types of Status Hierarchies Physical Correlates of Status Social Skills, Reputation, and Social Capital Social Cognition and Status Acquisition Sex Differences in Status Striving Conclusion Cross-References References Status and Redistribution of Resources Synonyms Definition Introduction Status and Distribution Status and Redistribution Social Dominance Strategies for (Re)distribution Criticism of Evolutionary Perspectives on Status and Redistribution Conclusion Cross-References References Status and Reproductive Success Synonyms Definition Introduction Status and Reproductive Success in Small-Scale Societies Conclusion Cross-References References Status and Wealth Status Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Status Competition and Peer Relationships in Childhood Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Hierarchy During Childhood Social Status Popularity Social Preference Social Rank The Routes to Social Status Dominance Prestige Conclusion References Status Gradient Status Hierarchies Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution and Social Hierarchies Male Armaments and Female Choice Status Cues and Female Choice Female Intrasexual Competition and Status Attaining and Maintaining Social Status Aggressive Tactics Cooperative Tactics Communication Tactics Hierarchies and Hormones Testosterone and Armaments Testosterone and Dominance Testosterone and Competition Female Hormones Hierarchies and Health Employment Rank Comparative Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Status Hierarchy Status Striving Status Symbol Status-Leveling Steady Future Stepchildren Stepfamilies Synonyms Definition Introduction Challenges Faced in the Stepfamily Myths and Reality about Stepfamily Conclusion Cross-References References Step-Parenting Definition Introduction Step-Parenting in the (Standard) Social Sciences The Evolutionary Approach to Understanding Stepparental Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Stepparents Synonyms Definition Introduction Stepparents and Evolution Stepparents and Parental Care Stepparents and Child Abuse Conclusions Cross-References References Stereotyped Vocalizations Definition Introduction Animal Vocal Behavior Vocal Control Acoustic Flexibility in Animal Calls Animal Call Sequences Meaning in Animal Calls Intentionality in Animal Communication Conclusion Cross-References References Stereotypes Steroid Hormone Steve Gangestad Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Hide and Seek Conclusion Cross-References References Steven Pinker Education and Research on Visual Cognition Research on Language Research on Violence On Writing Awards Cross-References References Steven Pinker and Language Development Synonyms Definition Introduction The Language Instinct (1994) How the Mind Works (1997) Words and Rules (1999) The Blank Slate (2002) The Stuff of Thought (2007) The Sense of Style Conclusion Cross-References References Steven Pinker How the Mind Works Steven Pinker on Genetic Determinism Synonyms Definition Introduction Benefits Genetic Determinism of Psychological Traits Pitfalls Conclusion Cross-References References Steven Pinker on Language Steven Pinker on Universal Grammar Stick Tools for Foraging Synonyms Definition Introduction Probe Tool Use in Birds Probe Use in Nonhuman Primates Probe Tool Use in Bearded Capuchin Monkeys Probe Tool Use in Orangutans Probe and Pounding Stick Tools Use in Chimpanzees Conclusion Cross-References References Stigma Stigmatization and Ostracism Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Stimulation of Partner´s Genitalia and Having Partner Stimulate Genitalia Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination Definition Introduction Differentiation of Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination Concepts Conclusion Cross-References References Stochastic Environment Stochastic Phenotype Switching Stone Hammers Synonyms Definition Introduction Use of Stone Hammers in Birds Use of (Passive) Stone ``Hammers´´ in a Non-primate Mammal Use of Stone Hammers in Nonhuman Primates Tufted Capuchin Monkeys (Sapajus sp.) Long-Tailed Macaques (Macaca Fascicularis) Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes) and Other Apes Conclusion Cross-References References Stopping Early Hypothesis Stopping-Early Hypothesis Story Storyteller Storytelling Strain Theory Stranger Anxiety Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolution of Stranger Anxiety Implications of Stranger Anxiety Conclusion Cross-References References Stranger Sex Strategic Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Sex Differences Then and Now Conclusion Cross-References References Strategic Ejaculate Investment Strategic Ejaculation Strategic Interference Strategic Pluralism Theory Strategies Strategies for Navigating Social Rank Hierarchies Strategies for Successful Cooperation Synonyms Definition Introduction Defining Cooperation Adaptive Problems and the Evolution of Cooperation Proximate Mechanisms for the Evolution of Cooperation The Five Rules Additional Potential Mechanisms for the Evolution of Cooperation Core Design Principles Conclusion Cross-References References Streetwalking Strength Strength and Anger-Proneness Synonyms Definition Introduction The Link Between Physical Strength and Aggression What Explains the Relationship Between Strength and Aggression? Conclusion Cross-References References Stress Synonyms Definition Introduction Functions of the Stress Response Phylogeny of the Stress Response Sex Differences Conclusion Cross-References References Stress and Cortisol Definition and Synonyms Introduction Physiology of Cortisol in the Body Effects of Cortisol Diagnostic Measures of Cortisol Treatment of Stress and Cortisol Conclusion Cross-References References Stress Hormones Stress Reactivity Synonyms Definition Introduction Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis Adaptive Calibration Model Psychosocial Acceleration Theory Harshness and Unpredictability Dimensions Hypervigilance and Psychopathology Psychosocial Acceleration Theory Revisited Conclusion Cross-References References Stress Reduction and Mental Health Synonyms Introduction Conclusion References Stress Response Stress Response System Stressor Strike Back Strong Negative Reciprocity Strong Reciprocity Synonyms Definition Introduction Experimental Evidence Proximate Mechanisms Evolutionary Origins Conclusions Cross-References References Structure Student-Centered Learning Studies on Adaptation of Human Behavior and Behavioral Outcomes Study of Animal Minds Study of Dunnock Mating, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Variable Mating System The Genetic Eyepiece Personality and Its Implication for Dunnock Mating Conclusion Cross-References References Study of Instinct, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Arguments for the ``Instinct´´ Concept The ``Instinct´´ Concept: Arguments Against Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Stumble Stuttering Synonyms Definition Introduction Developmental Stuttering Conclusion Cross-References References Subcultural Theory Synonyms Definition Introduction Subculture Characteristics Conclusion Cross-References References Subgroup Subjective Arousal Subjectivity Submission Subordinate Behavioral Tactics Substance Abuse Substance Addiction Substance Dependence Substance Misuse Substance Use Disorder Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Benefits of Naturally Occurring Substances Evolutionary Mismatch Life History Theory False Fitness Theory Neurobiological Perspective Conclusion References Substantive Ethics Sufferer Suicidal Enactment Suicidality Suicide Synonyms Definition Introduction Suicide from an Evolutionary Perspective The Study of Clusters in Suicidal Behavior Risk and Protective Factors of Suicide Conclusion Cross-References References Suicide (Evolutionary Clinical Psychology) Introduction The Inclusive Fitness Model The Bargaining Model Conclusion Cross-References References Suicide as Kin-Directed Altruism Synonyms Definition Introduction Research on Suicide as Kin-directed Altruism Conclusion Cross-References References Suicide Bombers Suicide Terrorism Synonyms Definition Introduction Relevant Concepts in Evolutionary Psychology Terrorism and Suicide Terrorism: A Brief Summary Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and Suicide Terrorism Terrorism from an Evolutionary Psychological Perspective Suicide Terrorism as Altruism Suicide Terrorism as Direct or Indirect Reciprocal Altruism Suicide Terrorism and Kin Selection Suicide Terrorism as Induced Altruism/Fictive Kinship Critique of the Evolutionary Psychological Explanations of Suicide Terrorism Multiple Causes of Suicide Terrorism and the Need for Empirical Psychological Research Conclusion Cross-References References Summary Representation Synonyms Definition Introduction Memory and Personality Traits Scope Hypothesis The Statistical Nature of Summary Representation Change Blindness The Role of Attention Conclusion Cross-References References Superior Longitudinal Folliculus Superiority Super-K Supernormal Sign Stimulus Supernormal Stimuli Definition Introduction Animal Research Human Implications Conclusion References Supernormal Stimuli (Konrad Lorenz) Synonyms Definition Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen Examples of Supernormal Stimuli Pornography and Mirror Neurons Can Supernormal Stimuli Be Adaptive? Conclusion Cross-References References Supernormal Stimulus Synonyms Definition Introduction From Early Ethology to Today´s Consumerism Conclusion Cross-References References Supernormality Super-Stimulus Superstition Supremacy Surreptitious Mating Surroundings Surveillance Cues Survey Surveys and Questionnaires Synonyms Definition Introduction Keep Your Target Population in Mind Construct Your Questions Purposefully Verify That Your Efforts to Avoid Bias Have Been Adequate Conclusion Cross-References References Survival Advantages of ADHD Symptoms Based on Evolutionary Mismatch Approaches Synonyms Definition Introduction Leading Evolutionary Mismatch Approaches of ADHD ADHD Symptoms as Adaptive Hunters´ Traits Survival Benefits of ADHD Symptoms for Waders Individuals with ADHD as Better Fighters ADHD Traits Facilitate Swift Reactions Survival Advantages of ADHD-Associated Capricious Behaviors The Adventurous Nature (and Hence Survivability) of Individuals with ADHD Integration of Key Evolutionary Mismatch Approaches Conclusion Cross-References References Survival and Death Synonyms Definition Introduction Longevity and Causes of Death in Hunter-Gatherers The Nonhuman Environment The Human Environment Other ``Life-and-Death´´ Considerations Conclusion Cross-References References Survival and Reproduction Survival of the Fittest Survival-Relevant Survivorship Susceptibility Sustained Attention Swarming Swatting Sweet Swimming Sycophant Symbiosis and Mutualism Synonyms Definitions Introduction Types of Symbiosis Mutualism Types of Mutualism Intraspecies Mutualism Synergistic and By-Product Mutualism Mutualism, Reciprocity, and Pseudoreciprocity The Evolution of Mutualism Conclusion Cross-References References Symbiotic and Mutualistic Relationships Symbolic Behavior Symbolic Culture Synonyms Definitions Introduction Semiosis Evolution of Symbolic Thought Conclusions Cross-References References Symbolic Knowledge Symbolic Signs Symmetry Synapse Syntagmatic Relations Systems T Tactical Tactics to Solve Adaptive Problems of Sperm Competition Definition Introduction Paternal Assurance Tactics Conclusion Cross-References References Tactics Versus Strategies Definition Introduction Strategies and Tactics Conclusion Cross-References References Talking About Others Tall Poppy Synonyms Definition Introduction Tall Poppy Syndrome Conclusion Cross-References References Tandem Memory Retrieval Taste Synonyms Definition Introduction Cells Found in Taste Buds Transmission of Signals from Receptors to the Brain Genetic Variations in Taste Perception Conclusions Cross-References References Taste Preferences Ta-ta Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Tattoos Teacher Teaching Procedures Team Athletes Team Sport Synonyms Definition Introduction Groups Versus Teams Team Dynamics The Evolution of Sport Involvement in Team Sports Matters Conclusion Cross-References References Tearing Technical Intelligence Hypothesis, The Definition Introduction How to Test for the Technical Intelligence Hypothesis? Tool Manufacture and the Technical Intelligence Hypothesis Technical Innovations and the Technical Intelligence Hypothesis Did Tool Use/Technical Innovations Drive Brain Enlargement and the Evolution of Intelligence? Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Technological Bullying Teenage Issues Teenage Pregnancy Teleology Telomerase Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Support Importance to Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion References Telomere Telomere Attrition Telomere Depletion Synonyms Definition Introduction Overview What Are Telomeres? Telomere Evolution Environmental Exposures Correlate with Depleted Telomere Length Causal Models and Alternative Hypotheses Explaining Correlations The Future of the Field and the Need for Longitudinal Research Conclusion Cross-References References Telomere Erosion Telomere Shortening Telomeric Repeat Sequence Temper Temperament Temperature Temporal Discounting Temporal or Spatial Fluctuation Temporal Processing Temptation Tend and Befriend Adaptations Synonyms Definition Introduction Tend and Befriend Theory Biological Underpinnings Evolutionary Advantages of Tending and Befriending for Females Evidence for Tend-and-Befriend Adaptations Oxytocin and Stress Responses in Human Females Sex Differences in Stress Reactivity Conclusion Cross-References References Tenor Tenth Cranial Nerve Teratogenic Effects of Alcohol Exposure on the Fetus Synonyms Definition Introduction Alcohol as a Teratogen Growth CNS Damage Craniofacial Abnormalities Alcohol-Related Birth Defects Mechanism of Alcohol Teratogenicity Conclusion Cross-References References Terminal Altruism Territoriality Terrorism Terrors Testable Testament Testosterone Synonyms Definition Introduction History and Mechanisms Testosterone and Life History Theory Mating Versus Parenting Trade-Off Conclusion Cross-References References Tests of Male Quality Thanatology Thayer´s Law The Big Five The Breadth of General Evolutionary Theory The Causes of War The Civilizing Process The Evolution of Genitalia The Extractive Foraging Hypothesis The Four-Card Problem The Gravity Hypothesis of Sexual Size Dimorphism The Handicap Principle The Interjectionist Theory The Mating Mind The Middle Ages The Musical Protolanguage Model The Origin of Species The Peripheral and Central Auditory System The Preconscious The Procreation Debate The Psychology of Crime The Red Queen Effect The Sally-Anne Test The Science of Strategy The Sexual Double Standard The Sexual Response Cycle The Size of a Group The Stress Response The Subconscious The Traveling Sound The Wason Selection Task The Westermarck Effect The Zone of Proximal Development Theoretical Reasoning Theories Theories of Language Theories of Language Evolution Theories of Morality Theorist Theory of Asymmetric Investment Theory of Close Relationships Theory of Games Theory of Mind Synonyms Definition Introduction The False-Belief Task Controversy Two Views on the Evolution and Development of Theory of Mind Does Theory of Mind Emerge Early or Late in Development? Can Apes Pass False-Belief Tasks? The two-Systems View Conclusion Cross-References References Theory of Mind and Evidence of Brain Modularity Synonyms Definition Introduction Theory of Mind The Modularity-Nativist Approach Conclusion Cross-References References Theory of Mind and Nonhuman Intelligence Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Intelligence Hypothesis The Logical Problem Multiple Systems Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Theory of Moral Development Synonyms Definition Introduction Kohlberg´s Three Levels Assessing Morality Criticisms of Kohlberg´s Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Theory of Reciprocal Altruism Theory of Senescence Synonyms Definition Introduction Meaning of the Term Senescence Reduced Selection Pressure with Increasing Age Theories of the Evolution of Aging The Apparent Anomaly of Human Post-reproductive Survivorship Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Theory of the Descent Theory of War Therapeutic Touch Synonyms Definition Introduction Basis of Therapeutic Touch Clinical Use of ``Therapeutic Touch´´ Process of Therapeutic Touch Phases of Touch Therapy Conclusion Cross-References References Thermal Processing of Food Thermodynamics Thermometer Thermoregulation Thirteen Misunderstandings About Natural Selection Introduction Misunderstanding 1: Natural Selection Is a Random, Chance-Driven Process Misunderstanding 2: Natural Selection Is Primarily About Survival Misunderstanding 3: ``Natural Selection´´ Refers to an Agent That Actively ``Selects´´ the Best Organisms for the Next Generat... Misunderstanding 4: Natural Selection Is Teleological - It Is Working Toward a Goal or Final Purpose Misunderstanding 5: Natural Selection Favors the Survival of The Species Misunderstanding 6: Natural Selection Builds Perfectly Designed Biological Mechanisms Misunderstanding 7: Evolution Implies Genetic Determinism Misunderstanding 8: Adaptations Must Be Present at Birth (or Must Emerge Very Early in Life) Misunderstanding 9: The Products of Evolved Mechanisms Are Fixed and Unchangeable Misunderstanding 10: You Can Use the Principles of Natural Selection to Bypass the Psychological Level of Analysis and Predict... Misunderstanding 11: Natural Selection Is the Only Driver of Evolutionary Change Misunderstanding 12: Evolutionary Hypotheses Are Primarily Post-Hoc Storytelling - Also Known as ``Just-So´´ Stories Misunderstanding 13: Natural Selection Has Stopped for Our Species, So Humans Are No Longer Evolving Conclusion Cross-References References Thomas Cathcart Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Thorndike´s Law of Effect Synonyms Definition Introduction Development of the Theory Evaluation and Influence of the Theory Conclusion Cross-References References Threat Avoidance Threat Detection Threat Detection Systems Threat Reactive Threat Responses Threats of Sperm Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Threat of Cuckoldry Behavioral Responses Postconception Responses The Threat of Sperm Competition to Women Conclusion Cross-References References Three Stages of Habitat Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Conclusion Cross-References References Thrifty Genotype Time Tinbergen´s Four Questions Synonyms Definition Introduction Causal/Mechanistic Explanations Ontogenetic Explanations Phylogenetic Explanations Functional Explanations Tinbergen´s Four Questions in Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Tinbergen´s Four Whys To Afford Protection Against Climate and Weather Synonyms Definition Introduction Human Cold Tolerance Hypothermia Frostbite Climate Variables Temperature Wind Chill Environmental Moisture Clothing Physiology Principles Measuring the Thermal Value Climate and Clothing Evolution Conclusion Cross-References References To Kill Yourself To Stop Nursing Tolerance Tool Tool Behavior Tool Innovation Tool Manufacturing Synonyms Definition Introduction Avian Toolmakers Woodpecker Finches New Caledonian Crows Goffin´s Cockatoos Northern Blue Jays Rooks Sculpting Wire Hooks Conclusion Cross-References References Tool Play Definition Introduction Evidence from the Wild Chimpanzees Bonobos Orangutans Gorillas Capuchins Western Red Colobus Vervet Monkeys Interspecies Evidence from Free-Ranging Populations Rhesus Macaques Evidence from Captivity Chimpanzees Bonobos Orangutans Gorillas Gibbons Capuchins Vervet Monkeys Macaques Conclusion Cross-References References Tool Use Toolmaking Tool-Use Tasks Top Dog Tormenting Totemism Touch Introduction Discriminative Touch Social Touch Conclusion Cross-References References Towards Methodological Pluralism in Psychological Sciences Synonyms Definition Introduction A Historical Unity Psychology and Anthropology: An Important Relationship Cognitive Science A Theoretical Unity The Importance of Culture in Cognition Theory of Mind Visual Information Processing A Methodological Disunity Shortcomings of Experimental Methods Context Impoverishment Low Ecological Validity Limited Scope Moving Towards Methodological Pluralism and Interdisciplinarity Multimodal Approaches Interdisciplinary Collaborations The Case of Human Behavioral Ecology and Evolutionary Psychology Conclusion Cross-References References Toxic Molecules in Seminal Fluid Tradeoff Trade-Off Between Exploration and Exploitation References Trade-Off Between Reproductive Fitness and Longevity Trade-Offs Tradeoffs in Mate Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Strategies for Optimal Reproductive Success Sex Differences in Mate Preferences Trade-offs in Mate Selection Differences in Preferences Based on Mating Contexts Conclusion Cross-References References Traditional Life-Expectancy Training Trait Trait Anger Trait Judgment Trait Self-Esteem Trait Theories Synonyms Definition Introduction Allport´s Theory Eysenck´s Theory Cattell´s Theory The Big Five Conclusion Cross-References References Traits Traits that Facilitate Continued Existence Transformed Information Transient Ontogenetic Adaptation Transient vs. Non-transient Ontogenetic Adaptations Transition Transmission of Sound Transmutations Theory Transsexualism Trap Tasks Traumatic Brain Injury Traumatic Insemination Synonyms Definition Introduction Benefits of TI to Males Costs of, and Female Response to, TI Benefits of TI to Females Evolutionary Trends in TI Traumatic Sexual Intercourse in Humans Open Questions and Future Research Conclusion Cross-References References Traumatic Mating (pt.) Treachery Treatment of Females in Sexual Socialization Treatment of Males in Sexual Socialization Trial-and-Error Learning Tribal Religion Tribalism Synonyms Definition Introduction The Origins of Tribalism The Evolution of Intergroup Conflict Intergroup Conflict in Humans and Chimpanzees Tribalism in Social Perception: In-Groups Versus Out-Groups Theories of Social Cooperation Tribalism in the Modern Day Tribalism and the Coronavirus Pandemic Conclusion Cross-References References Tribalism in Moral Tribes Tribes Trickery Triggering Kin Selection Synonyms Definition Introduction Kin Selection and Hamilton´s Rule The Triggers of Kin Selection Kin Recognition The Greenbeard Effect Population Viscosity Kin Selection at Work The Monogamy Hypothesis Coalitions in Wild Turkeys Kin Selection and Class Structure Summary Cross-References References Trivers-Willard Effect Trivers-Willard Hypothesis Definition Introduction Parental Variation of Offspring Sex Offspring Sex Ratios and Characteristics of Dominance in Fathers Offspring Sex Ratios and Characteristics of Dominance in Mothers Parental Hormones and Offspring Sex Ratios Assortative Mating and Offspring Sex Ratio Conclusion Cross-References References Trolley Problem Trolley Problem, or Would You Throw the Fat Guy Off the Bridge? Synonyms Definition Introduction To Pull or Not to Pull the Switch Why the Trolley Problem Matters What Others Think Conclusion Cross-References References Trolley Problem, The Synonyms Definition Introduction The Trolley Problem in Research and Variations Cross-Cultural Trolley Problem Conclusion Cross-References References Trolleyology True Friends Trust Tu Quoque, Argumentum Ad hominem, Character Attack Tumor Twin Studies Synonyms Definition Introduction Quantifying Genetic and Environmental Influences on Trait Variation and Covariation Twin Studies and Evolutionary Psychology Conclusions Cross-References References Two-Parent Families Synonyms Definition Introduction Two-Parent Versus Single-Parent Families Variation in Parental Identity and Quality of Investment Conclusion Cross-References References Type III Diabetes Types of Crying Synonyms Definition Introduction Watery Eyes Flowing Tears and Facial Expressions Vocal Emissions Tears of Sadness and Pain Tears of Need Tears of Joy Conclusions Cross-References References Types of Sexual Coercion Synonyms Definition Introduction Direct Sexual Coercion Indirect Sexual Coercion Sexual Coercion in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References U UG Ultimate Behavior Ultimatum Uncertainty Monitoring Uncertainty of Biological Kinship Uncommitted Mating Uncommitted Sexual Encounters Unconditional Response Unconditional Stimulus Unconditioned Reflex Unconditioned Response Synonyms Definition Introduction The Nature of Unconditioned Responses Unconditioned Response and Its Role in Classical Conditioning The Discrepancy Between Unconditioned and Conditioned Responses Emotional Reactions Based on Unconditioned Responses Cross-References References Unconditioned Stimulus Synonyms Definition Introduction Classical Conditioning and Unconditioned Stimuli Emotional Reactions Based on Unconditioned Responses Cross-References References Unconscious, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Unconscious Conflict Dreams: The Royal Road to the Unconscious Unconscious Sexual Motivation The Parapraxes (or Freudian Slips) The Cognitive Unconscious Cross-References References Unconstrained Vision of Human nature Uncontrollability Under-5 Mortality Undereducated Underemployed Understanding Understanding Human Gaze Introduction Psychological Basis of Gaze-Following Across Primate Species The Adaptive Value of Gaze-Following Conclusions Cross-References References Understanding Human Points Synonyms Definition Introduction Pointing in Nonhuman Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Undesirable Undetected Extra-Pair Copulation Undisclosed Ovulation Uneducated Unemployed Synonyms Definition Introduction Low Social Status Not Associated with Suicide Terrorism Conclusion Cross-References References Unexpected Contents Task Unfair Male Disadvantage Unfaithful Behavior Unfaithfulness Unfolding Unipolar Depression Unique Patterns in the United States Synonyms Definition Introduction Sociocultural Factors and IPV Symmetry Conclusions Cross-References References Unit of Cultural Transmission Unit of Imitation Universal Aspects of Kinship Synonyms Definition Introduction Intrinsic Kinship Universals Kin Recognition Universals The Evolutionary Background of Human Kin Recognition Kin Recognition in Humans Relational Kinship Universals and Their Consequences Conclusion Cross-References References Universal Grammar Synonyms Definition Introduction The Role of UG in Language Acquisition Conclusion Cross-References References Universal Human Fears Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Evidence for Fear of Dangerous Animals Threatening Objects Promote Visual Attention Gender Differences in Common Fears Why Humans Display a Fear of Harmless Stimuli Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Universalism Universals in Beauty Unknown Territory Synonyms Definition Introduction Navigating Unfamiliar Areas Conclusion Cross-References References Unlimited Storage Unobservability Hypothesis, The (Vonk and Povinelli, 2006) Definition Introduction Testing the Unobservability Hypothesis Conclusion Cross-References References Unokai Unokais and the Headmen of the Yanomamö Synonyms Definition Introduction Noble Savages Social Hierarchy Pursuing Status and Mates Conclusion References Unpopular Unpredictable Environment Unpredictable Environments Unrestricted Sexuality Unstable Environments Untruth Unusual Unwanted Sexual Advance Upbringing Upper Body Strength Definition Introduction How Important Is Upper Body Strength to Aggression? What Are the Correlates of Greater Upper Body Strength in Men? Conclusion Cross-References References Upper Body Strength and Fighting Ability Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Upper Body Strength from Photo Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Evidence Conclusion Cross-References References Urban Gangs Synonyms Definition Introduction Female Gang Members Women´s Membership and Roles Within Gangs Induction of Female Members Violence and Aggression Conclusion Cross-References References Urban Sexuality Usage-Based Linguistics Use It or Lose It Synonyms Definition Introduction Enriched Environments Can Reduce Cognitive Decline Enriched Environments May Not Affect Cognitive Decline Conclusion Cross-References References Use of Implements Use of Instruments Use of Mate Retention Strategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Introduction The Problem of Infidelity Why Engage in Costly Mate Retention Efforts? Taxonomy of Mate Retention Tactics Men´s Use of Mate Retention Tactics Women´s Use of Mate Retention Tactics Concurrent Mate Retention Tactics Compensatory Mate Retention Tactics Individual Differences in Mate Retention Tactics Coalitional Mate Retention Role of Emotion in Motivation of Mate Retention Environmental Factors That Influence Mate Retention Tactics Conclusion Cross-References References Usefulness of Hyperactivity Utensil Utilitarianism Synonyms Definition Introduction Act- and Rule-Utilitarianism The Psychology of Utilitarianism Conclusion Cross-References References Utility Utility Attributes Utilization of Complex Instruments Utopian Vision Uxoricide V Vagal Tone Vaginal Evolution Vaginal Plug Vaginal-Penile Sex Vagus Nerve Valuation Motive Value Attributes Synonyms Introduction Context and Value Context and Decision-Making Conclusion Cross-References References Value Features Vampire Bat Food Sharing Vanity Variability of Aggression Definition Introduction Male-on-Male Aggression in Cultures of Honor Female-on-Female Aggression Male-on-Female Intimate Partner Violence Evolutionary Approaches to Variation in Aggressive Behavior Conclusion Cross-References References Variable-Interval Schedule Variable-Ratio Schedule Variance in Female Reproductive Success Synonyms Definition Introduction Constraints on Reproduction Female Multiple Mating and Reproductive Variance Conclusion Cross-References References Variance in Reproductive Success Variant Variant Sexuality Variation Variation in Disease Risk Venereal Disease Ventral Stream, The Synonyms Definition Introduction Subcortical Visual Input to the Dorsal Stream Geniculostriate Visual Pathway Extrageniculostriate Visual Pathway Extrastriate Visual Cortical Area ``Tributaries´´ to the Ventral Stream Cortical Connections of the Visual Inferotemporal Cortex Intrinsic Connections Cortical Output Pathways Medial Temporal Lobe Pathways Dorsolateral, Ventrolateral, and Ventromedial (Orbitofrontal) Prefrontal Pathways Function Conclusion Cross-References References Ventral Visual Pathway Verbal Verbal Achievement Verbal Aggression Verbal Bullying Verbal Communication Verbal Derogation Synonyms Definition Introduction Indirect Verbal Derogation Versus Direct Verbal Derogation Efficacy of Competitor Derogation Conclusion Cross-References References Verbal Derogation Among Women Synonyms Definition Introduction A Function of Derogation Derogation: Targets and Content Derogation: Benefits and Costs Conclusion Cross-References References Verbal Knowledge Verbal Mimicry Verbing and Nouning Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Are Verbing and Nouning Important for Language Evolution? Are Prescriptive Grammarians Right to Be So Hostile to Verbing and Nouning? Conclusion Cross-References References Vestibular System Victim Victimization Victims Mostly Men Synonyms Definition Introduction Routine Activates Theory Delinquent Lifestyles Theory Self-Control Theory Conclusion References Victims of Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction Pre-Violence Adaptations Running Example: Pre-Violence Antirape Adaptations Mid-Violence Adaptations Running Example: Mid-Violence Antirape Adaptations Post-Violence Adaptations Running Example: Post-Violence Antirape Adaptations Conclusion Cross-References References Vigilance of Close Kin Versus Distant Kin Vigilance over Kin´s Romantic Relationships Synonyms Definition Introduction Why Parents Have an Interest in Their Children´s Romantic Relationships? Diverging Genetic Interests and Parental Influence over Mating Converging Genetic Interests and Parental Influence over Mating Contingencies in the Opportunity Cost of Free Mate Choice Daughters Versus Sons Mothers Versus Fathers Parental Influence over Mating Across Societies Preindustrial Societies Hunting and Gathering Societies Agropastoral Societies Agropastoral Versus Hunting and Gathering Societies Postindustrial Societies Preindustrial Versus Postindustrial Societies Parental Control over Mating Across Time Sexual Selection and Parental Control over Mating Areas of Future Research Conclusion Cross-References References Vigilance, Sentinels, and Alarms Synonyms Definition Introduction Vigilance Sentinels Alarms Cross-References References Violation of Long-Term Mate Preferences Synonyms Definition Introduction Long-Term Relationships Inaccurate Initial Assessment of Traits Relative Decline in Partner´s Mate Value Conflicting Strategic Interests When Long-Term Preferences Are Violated Conclusion Cross-References References Violation of Short-Term Mating Preferences Synonyms Definition Introduction Short-Term Mating Preferences Violation of Short-Term Mating Preferences Expectations of and Reactions to Mating Preference Violations Conclusion Cross-References References Violence Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Selection Theory and Parental Investment Theory Male-Male Violence Female Aggression and Violence Intimate Partner Violence Violence Against Children Violence During War Conclusion Cross-References References Violence as Coercive Control Synonyms Definition Introduction Physical Violence as Coercive Control Sexual Violence as Coercive Control Conclusion Cross-References References Violence from Women´s Kin Synonyms Definition Introduction Guarding Female Kin Retaliation and Revenge Conclusion Cross-References References Violence to Control Women´s Sexuality Synonyms Definition Introduction The Adaptive Problem Violence as an (Ancestral) Solution Conclusions Cross-References References Violent Violent Extremism Violent Fantasy Viral Agent Virility Virion Virtue Virus Synonyms Definition Introduction Structure Classification Replication Immunity Against Virus Evolution of Virus, Mutations, and Consequences Health Implications Laboratory Diagnosis Advantages of Viruses Conclusion References Viscous Population Synonyms Definition Introduction Altruism in Viscous Populations Class Structure in Viscous Populations Kin Competition Conclusion Cross-References References Vision Synonyms Definition Introduction The Blueprint of Vision Lower Organisms to Humans Molecular and Anatomical Evolution of Vision Concluding Remarks Acknowledgment References Vision Science Visual Agnosia for Faces Visual Association Cortex Synonyms Definition Introduction Parasensory Visual Association Cortex First Order Visual Association Cortical Areas Second and Third Order Visual Association Cortical Areas Paralimbic Visual Association Cortex Properties and Functions of Visual Association Cortex Conclusion Cross-References References Visual Awareness Visual Cognition Visual Illusions Synonyms Definition Introduction The Nature of Illusions Conclusion Cross-References References Visual Processing Visual Recognition Visual Similarity Visual Statistical Representation Visual-Gestural Language Visual-Spatial Language Viviparity Vocabulary Synonyms Definition Introduction Finding Words in Speech Associating Words with Meanings Conclusion Cross-References References Vocal Amplitude Vocal Attractiveness Synonyms Definition Introduction Vocal Attractiveness in Men Vocal Attractiveness in Women Considerations and Future Directions Cross-References References Vocal Communication Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Vocal Competition Synonyms Definition Introduction Vocal Contests Indirect Vocal Competition Indirect Vocal Competition in ``Selfish´´ Choruses Vocal Competition in Cooperative Choruses Conclusions References Vocal Duets Vocal Fundamental Frequency Vocal Grooming Synonyms Definition Introduction Manual Grooming in Primates Vocal Grooming Transitions to Language Conclusion Cross-References References Vocal Indicators of Dominance Synonyms Definition Introduction Voice as an Index of Body Size and Strength Voice-Based Assessments of Dominance Reliability and Deception in Vocal Indicators of Dominance Conclusion Cross-References References Vocal Intensity Vocal Loudness Vocal Tract Reconfiguration Vocal Turn-Taking Vocalization Vocalizations Voice Acoustics Voice Attractiveness Voice Box Voice Depth Voice Pitch Synonyms Definition Introduction Voice Pitch Variation and Modulation Sexual Selection and Voice Pitch Conclusion Cross-References References Voluntary Redistribution Volunteering Publicly Synonyms Definition References Vowels Vulnerability Factors Vulnerability to Mental Disorders Vygotskian Intelligence Hypothesis, The (Moll Et Al., 2007) Synonyms Definition Introduction Origins of Cognition Conclusion Cross-References References W Wailing Waist-to-Hip Ratio Synonyms Definition Introduction Sexual Dimorphism in Human Body Composition Sexual Selection on Female WHR and Singh´s ``First Pass Filter´´ Hypothesis Cross-cultural variation in the attractiveness of low WHRs in women Multivariate Selection on Preferences for Female Body Shape Conclusion Cross-References References Walking War Synonyms Definition Introduction Male Competition for Mates Is Intense Could War Heroism Be Adaptive? Have Men Evolved to Make War? What Are the Necessary Precursors to War? Conclusion Cross-References References War More Likely with Higher Likelihood of Success Synonyms Definition Introduction The Risk Contract of War Offensive Versus Defensive Warfare Nobody´s Perfect: Overconfidence, Positive Illusions, and Military Incompetence Conclusion Cross-References References Warfare Warfare, War, Feuding, Primate Aggression Warning Warning Call Warning Coloration Warning Display Warning Signal Wason (1966) Selection Task Synonyms Definition Human Performance in the Early Days Evolutionary Psychology and the Selection Task Conclusion References Wason´s Four-Card Problem Wason´s Selection Task Waterspouts (Archerfish, Sharks, Rays) Synonyms Definition Introduction Using Waterspouts as Tools Using Innate Objects as Tools Conclusion Cross-References References Watson Wealth Reallocation Wealth Transfers Weaning Synonyms Definition Introduction Process of Weaning Abrupt Weaning Gradual Weaning Timing of Weaning Current Recommendations Historical and Cultural Variation Benefits of Early Weaning Benefits of Later Weaning Evolutionary Perspective Support for Breastfeeding and Weaning Conclusion Cross-References References Weaning and Maternal-Fetal Conflict Synonyms Definition Introduction Weaning in Primates Time of Weaning in Humans Conclusion Cross-References References Weaning Conflict Web-Based Questionnaire Web-Based Survey Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Wechsler Intelligence Scale Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale Wedding Rings Weeping Weight Welfare Wellbeing Well-Being Well-Liked Wellness Westermarck Effect Synonyms Definition Introduction Empirical Tests of the Westermarck Effect Other Kin-Recognition Cues and the Proximate Regulation of Incest Aversion Conclusion Cross-References References Westermarck Effect and Imprinting Synonyms Definition Introduction The Evolutionary Function of Inbreeding Avoidance Evidence for Westermarck Effect in Humans Conclusion Cross-References Reference Westermarck´s Hypothesis Western Europe Synonyms Definition Introduction Migration Patterns Evidence for Human Populations Modern Human Interactions in Europe Conclusion Cross-References References Western Perspectives on Death Wet-Nursing Definition Introduction History of Wet-Nursing Optimization of Lactational Beneficiaries Benefits for the Child Benefits for the Breastfeeding Woman Logical Resource Provisioning Increased Community Altruism Conclusion Cross-References References What Makes a Tool Definition Introduction What Makes a Tool? Definitions of Tool Use Challenges with Defining Tool Use A Perception-Action Perspective on Tool Use Conclusions Cross-References References Whimpering Whipping Whoredom Whorfianism WHR Why Humans Are Unique Synonyms Definition Introduction Tool Use Language Abstraction Prosociality Imitation and Culture Conclusion Cross-References References Wife Killing Wild Justice Synonyms Definitions Introduction Cooperation Empathy Justice Conclusions References Will After Death Synonyms Definition Cross-References References William Hamilton Definition Introduction Brief Biography Kin Selection and Social Evolution Theory (1963 onward) Other Major Scientific Contributions Senescence (1966) Sex Allocation (1967) The Evolution of Gregarious Behavior (1971) Dispersal Strategies (1977) Evolution of Sex and Sexual Selection (1980) Awards, Recognition, and Legacy Cross-References Acknowledgment References Winner Effects Winthrop Kellogg Within-Group Competition Within-Group Killing Within-Sex Competition Within-Sex Selection Within-Species Comparisons Synonyms Definition Introduction Comparisons Between Naturally Occurring Groups Sex Differences Age Cohort Effects Sociality Comparisons Along an Environmental Gradient Cross-Cultural Comparisons Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Humans Cross-Cultural Comparisons in Nonhuman Animals Conclusion Cross-References References Wolves Women Women and Competition, The Oxford Handbook of Definition Introduction Book Overview Conclusion Cross-References Women Marry Up Synonyms Definition Introduction Female Hypergamy and Evolution Female Hypergamy in Modern Societies Future Research Conclusion Cross-References References Women Pretending Orgasm Synonyms Definition Introduction Women´s Reasons for Pretending Orgasm Measures of Women´s Reasons for Pretending Orgasm Individual Differences in Women Pretending Orgasm Conclusion Cross-References References Women Romantic Jealousy Women Romantic Partner Choice Women Sexual Partner Selection Women Use Verbal Derogation to Be Included Synonyms Definition Introduction Verbal Derogation as an Intrasexual Competitive Adaptation Conclusion Cross-References References Women´s Intrasexual Competition Women´s Liberation Women´s Long-Term Strategies Synonyms Definition Introduction Men´s Mate Preferences Form Women´s Competitive Strategies Long-Term Versus Short-Term Strategies Benefits of Long-Term Mating for Women Women´s Self-promoting Strategies Women´s Rival-Derogating Strategies Other Strategies Women Use in a Long-Term Relationship Conclusion Cross-References References Women´s Mate Interests Women´s Mate Preferences Synonyms Definition Female Mate Preferences Introduction Mating Strategies The Face Facial Symmetry Facial Averageness Sexually Dimorphic Features The Body Behavior The Context General Environment Local Interpersonal Environment Menstrual Cycle Conclusion Cross-References References Women´s Mate Retention Tactics Women´s Mate Value Synonyms Definition Introduction Reproductive Value Physical Attractiveness Conclusion Cross-References References Women´s Movement Women´s Personal Resources Synonyms Definition Introduction Hypotheses Cross-Cultural Research Historical Trend Analysis Individual Differences Research Explanations and Interpretations Conclusion Conclusion Cross-References References Women´s Preferences During Ovulation Synonyms Definition Introduction Evolutionary Explanations for Changes in Women´s Preferences Across the Menstrual Cycle Evidence for Changes in Women´s Preferences Across the Menstrual Cycle Evaluating Research Designs of Studies on Women´s Preferences Across the Menstrual Cycle Variation in Methods Used to Assess Women´s Menstrual Cycle Phase Mechanisms and Semantic Concerns in Research Examining Women´s Preferences Across the Menstrual Cycle Conclusion Cross-References References Women´s Preferred Partners Women´s Prosocial Dominant Acts Synonyms Definition Introduction Women´s Prosocial Dominance in Childhood Theoretical Perspectives on Women´s Expressions of Dominance Prosocial Expressions Through Cooperative Breeding Post-Reproductive Prosocial Dominance Expressions Conclusion Cross-References References Women´s Rights Women´s Sexual Preferences Women´s Use of Direct Versus Disguised Social Aggression Synonyms Definition Introduction Unique Aspects of Human Females´ Lives: Staying Healthy, Finding Assistants Forms of Individual Aggression Forms of Coalitionary Aggression Prioritizing Aggressive Strategies of Females Sex Differences in Aggression Conclusion Cross-References References Women´s Violence Words and Rules Synonyms Definition Introduction The English Past Tense: The First Battleground for Single- and Dual-Route Models Inflectional Morphology and Child Language Acquisition Crosslinguistic Data Challenges for the Words and Rules Model Conclusion Cross-References References Work Relationship Legitimation Work Relationships Worker Caste Working Class Working Memory Synonyms Definition Introduction Working Memory Versus Short-Term Memory Working Memory Is an Executive Functioning System Limitations of the Working Memory System Working Memory Deficits Interventions Conclusion Cross-References References Working Mothers Working Poor Working Relations Working Women Synonyms Definition Introduction Working Mothers Mother´s Work in Prehistory Conclusion References Workout Workplace Connection Workplace Harassment Workplace Relationships Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion Cross-References References Worry Worship Would You Kill the Fat Man? Synonyms Definition Introduction The Trolley Problem Conclusion Cross-References References X Xenophobia Y Yanomami Yanomamo (Chagnon, 1983) Synonyms Definition Introduction Social Structure and Sexual Access Conclusions Cross-References References Yo-Heave-Ho Theory Yo-he-ho Synonyms Definition Introduction Conclusion References Young Synonyms Definition Introduction Theoretical Considerations Conclusion Cross-References References Young Male Syndrome Youth Youth and Fertility Synonyms Definition Introduction Waist-to-Hip Ratio Fluctuating Asymmetry Voice Conclusion Cross-References References Z Zero Conversion Zinjanthropus boisei Zone of Proximal Development Zoological Philosophy