The Palgrave Handbook of African Women's Studies

Description

Preface Acknowledgments HeadingsSec100005218383 Contents About the Editors Section Editors About the Authors Contributors Section I: Introduction 1 Introduction: Decolonizing African Women´s Studies Objectives of the Handbook Contentions and Contestations The Subject: ``African Women´´ and ``Africa´´ Debunking Myths Representing Stories and Storywriters Transforming the Academy, Rewriting History Studies on African Women/African Women´s Studies Through Time African Women´s Studies: Authors, Anthologies, and Asymmetries Curating Themes: Outline of the Handbook Research and Knowledge Production on Women in Africa African Women and Politics African Women in Conflict and Peace Women and Gender-Based Violence (GBV) in Africa African Women and Development Processes (Re)Writing African Women´s Histories Women´s Movements in Africa African Women, Culture, and Society African Women´s Creativity, Arts, and Performance Conclusion References Research and Knowledge Production on Women in Africa 2 African Feminisms Introduction Historical Foundations The Politics of Self-Naming The ``African´´ in African Feminisms Agendas, Issues, and Strategies Gaps and New Directions Conclusion References 3 Teaching Women´s Studies in Africa Introduction Defining Women´s Studies Struggle and the Context of Women Studies in Africa Decolonizing Theories and Frameworks in African Women Studies and Research Themes of Women´s Studies in Africa Benefits of Women´s Studies to Africa´s Development Conclusion References 4 Decolonizing the Curriculum on African Women and Gender Studies Introduction Decolonization, Knowledge Production, and the Curriculum Gender Studies as a Decolonizing Project: Realizing Epistemic and Cognitive Justice Teaching a Decolonized Curriculum on African Women and Gender Studies Conclusion References 5 Women and Indigenous Knowledge in Africa Introduction Conceptual Clarification Indigenous Knowledge Women and Indigenous Knowledge Rural Women Economic Empowerment and Indigenous Knowledge Indigenous Technology Indigenous Knowledge of Medicine Women, Indigenous Knowledge, and Agriculture Women, Indigenous Knowledge, and Early Childhood Education Women, Indigenous Knowledge, and Biodiversity Conclusion References 6 African Indigenous Knowledge Systems and the Empowerment of African Women Introduction Conceptualizing Empowerment Theoretical and Empirical Underpinnings of IKS The Genesis and Purpose of AIKS Beyond Male-Centric Science Conclusion References 7 Women, Gender, and Knowledge Production in Anglophone Africa and Its Diaspora Introduction Anglophone West Africa and its Diaspora Gendered Knowledge Historical and Theoretical Framework: Pan-African Theory and the Ethno-Nations Critical Theory and Imposed Education Historical Encounters and Continuities in British-Anglophone Africa and Diaspora Relations Not-So-Indirect Rule: African-Anglo Gendered Encounters Modeling Gender-Balanced Syncretic Education Conclusion and Further Research References 8 Women, Gender, and Development in Africa Introduction Why Gender Matters in/for Development The Evolution of Discourse and Practice on Gender and Development Women´s Organizing Around Gender and Development Conclusion References 9 Feminist Legal Theory, Human Rights, and Culture in Africa Introduction Historical Overview Select Contemporary Currents Problematic: Learning Curve Shifting Human Rights Africa at a Crossroads Emergent Trend: Let Africa Lead Future Direction: What Is Right with Africa Conclusion References 10 Women, Gender, and Race in Post-Apartheid South Africa Introduction The Persisting Legacy of Race and Gender Divide in South Africa Women´s Economic and Social Participation Women in Leadership and Key Decision-Making Positions Some of the Challenges Facing South African Women Today Conclusion References 11 Researching Women and Gender in Africa: Present Realities, Future Directions Introduction Contesting Neoliberal Globalization in the Postcolonial Era Historicization and Contextualization: A Necessary Precondition Decolonization as a Process of Ethical Reconstruction Conclusion: Future Directions References 12 Postscript: Teaching Women´s Studies in Africa - Sample Syllabi Introduction Methodology Contents Sample Syllabus I Religion, Gender and Sexuality in Africa Course Description Course Aims and Objectives Knowledge Outcomes Course Texts Topics Assignments Additional Resources and Suggested Reading List Gender and Sexuality in Africa: General African Feminist Theologies Gender and Power in African Christianity Pentecostalism and Masculinities in Africa Religion, Sexuality, and HIV/AIDS Religion and the Politics of LGBTQ in Africa Sample Syllabus II: Black Women and Popular Culture Course Description Course Goals Schedule Sample Syllabus III: Women in African History Course Outline and Format Learning Goals Syllabus Sample Syllabus IV: Gender and Development Course Description Course Objectives and Student Learning Outcomes Lecture Material and Course Organization Assignments and Assessment Reference Material Detailed Class Schedule Weeks 1 and 2: Introduction to ADLT 329 Overview Goals and Objectives Activities and Assignments Week 3: Review of the UG Library System Overview Goals and Objectives Activities and Assignments Week 4: Review of the Concept of Adult Education Overview Goals and Objectives Activities and Assignments Weeks 5 and 6: Review Concepts in Gender and Development Overview Goals and Objectives Activities and Assignments Weeks 7 and 8: Approaches to Gender and Development Overview Goals and Objectives Activities and Assignments Weeks 9-11: Issues in Gender and Development Overview Goals and Objectives Activities and Assignments Weeks 12: Video Message Analysis in Gender and Development Overview Goals and Objectives Activities and Assignments Week 13: Revision for Final Examination Overview Goals and Objectives Examination Guide Additional Resources Sample Syllabus V: Women and Gender in the Middle East and North Africa Sample Syllabus VI: Main Currents in Gender Discourse Sample Syllabus VII: Culture and African Women´s Health Course Rationale Course Description Course Learning Objectives Teaching and Learning Methods Required Reading Course Outline: Class Schedule and Readings Other Resources Sample Syllabus VIII: Sexuality: Concepts and Perspectives Course Overview Course Objectives Learning Outcomes Course Contents Sample Syllabus IX: Women and Gender Studies in African Literature Course Description Course Objectives Course Materials Sample Syllabus X: Gender Dynamics in African History Sample Syllabus XI: Women Writers in Africa Required Texts Creative Texts Schedule Sample Syllabus XII: Nigerian Feminist Writers Required Texts Creative Texts Schedule Sample Syllabus XIII: Women in Africa Course Objectives Required Texts Course Schedule Chapter Conclusion Cross-References African Women and Politics 13 Women, Gender, and Politics in Africa Introduction Trends in Women´s Political Presence in Africa Women´s Movement Activism on the Continent National Machineries for Women and Femocracy Affirmative Action and Quotas for Women Patriarchy and Patronage Conclusion References 14 Women in Political Parties in Africa Introduction Is Women Participation in Party Politics in Africa: A Recent Development? International Instruments Supportive of Women´s Participation in Politics Women´s Participation in Party Politics in Africa Women as Party and Parliamentary Executives in Africa Percentage of Women in Parliament Across Regions Are There Lessons to Be Learnt from Africa on Women´s Participation in Political Parties and Politics? What Factors Limit Women´s Participation in Partisan Politics? Strategies for Promoting Women Participation in Political Parties/Politics Conclusion Cross-References References 15 Women in African Parliaments: Progress and Prospects Introduction How Have More Women Accessed Parliaments and Who Are They? What Are Electoral Gender Quotas? Descriptive Representation: Who Are the Women MPs? What Has Been the Impact of More Women in Parliament? Substantive Representation of Women´s Interests Symbolic Representation of Women´s Interests Future Prospects: Achieving Gender Parity in Parliaments? Conclusion: What About Democracy and Women´s Representation? References 16 Women in Judiciaries Across Africa Introduction Theorizing Women and Judiciaries in Across Africa Mapping Patterns and Women´s Symbolic Representation in African Judiciaries History of Legal Education Legal Traditions and Perceptions of Prestige Court Structures and Gender Stratification Selection Methods Emerging Trends and Patterns: Women on the Bench The Numbers Leadership Professional Associations and Networking Substantive Representation International Benches Continuing Challenges and Prospects for the Future Selection Methods Promotions Double Jeopardy Leadership Challenges Conclusion and Future Research References 17 Women in Executive Political Leadership in Africa Introduction Women´s Executive Political Leadership in West Africa Nigeria Women´s Executive Political Leadership in East Africa Uganda Recurrent Issues from Comparative Analysis of Women´s Experiences in Executive Political Leadership in Nigeria and Uganda Conclusion References 18 Women in Local Government in Africa: Gender, Resistance, and Empowerment Introduction Sociopolitical Structures, Cultural Practices, and Gender Construction and Deconstruction Resistance and Advocacy for Gender Equality Factors Enabling Women to Engage in Local Government Conclusion References 19 Women in/and the Security Sector in Africa Introduction Theoretical and Conceptual Exposition: Feminist Security Theory Legal and Policy Framework for Women in Security Sector Women and the Security Sector in Africa: Problems and Prospects Security Sector Reform and Female Participation in the Security Sector Conclusion References 20 Gender Equality Policies and African Women: A Comparative Critique Introduction The Scope of African Gender Equality Policies Understanding How Gender Equality Happens Development and Democracy? The Key(s) to Gender Equality: Institutions, Women, and Disruption The Limits of Gender Equality Policy: Informal Barriers Matter Why Gender Equality Policy Will Not Create Gender Equality Conclusion References 21 Women, Quotas, and Affirmative Action Policies in Africa Introduction The Affirmative Action Debate The Successes and Failures of Gender Quotas as Affirmative Action for Women in Africa Conclusion References 22 The State of LGBT Rights in Africa Introduction A Human Rights Frame LGBT Rights and Institutions Law Religion Family Media and Popular Culture Health Conclusion References 23 Women, Activism, and the State in North Africa Introduction Activism Under Colonialism The Early Years of Independence and Women´s Activism in North Africa The 1980s and the Resurgence of Women´s Activism Morocco Conclusion References 24 Women of African Islands: Rights, Representation, and Participation Introduction Contextualizing the Islands of Africa: General Trends Legal Frameworks for Equality: National and International Dimensions Representation and Participation: Gendered Power Relations Gendering Governance: Why Should Gender Equality Count? Conclusion Annex References 25 New Trends in Women and Politics in Africa Introduction Executives Heads of State Prime Ministers Ministers Vice Presidents Legislative Representation Speakers of the House Parliamentarians Judiciary Regional Leadership Explaining New Trends in Women´s Political Leadership Alternative Arguments Proportional Representation Systems Socioeconomic Development Foreign Aid Left-Leaning Parties Religion Colonial Legacies Explaining Women´s Political Ascent in Africa Quotas End of Major Conflict Democratization Women´s Mobilization International Pressures Conclusions Cross-References References African Women in Conflict and Peace 26 Women´s Roles and Positions in African Wars Introduction Gender and Militarism Historical Role of Women in African Wars: An Overview Women and Forms of Recruitment into Armed Groups in the Contemporary Era Women´s Wartime Activities Women in Military Roles Women´s Nonmilitary Role Impact of Women´s War Role on Their Postwar Lives Deconstructing Femininity in Wars Conclusion References 27 Theorizing African Women and Girls in Combat: From National Liberation to the War on Terrorism Introduction Gender and War Where War Happens: Blurring Private/Public and Civil/Military (Un)defining Women and Girls Women and Girls in Wars of National Liberation Rebel Girls/Bush Wives African Women and Girls in the ``War on Terror´´ Conclusion References 28 Gendered Experiences of Refugee and Displaced Women in Africa Introduction Feminist Intersectionality and the Continuum-of-Violence Approaches Label Matters and Why Labels Matter: The Politics of Naming the ``Refugee´´ in International Discourse Evolution of International Protection of Refugee Women A Gendered Continuum of Displacement Experiences in Africa Pre-war Outbreak of War Fleeing War In Displacement: Camps and Other Arrangements Durable Solutions Conclusion and Areas for Future Studies References 29 Women, Terrorist Groups, and Terrorism in Africa Introduction: Conceptualizing Terrorists and Terrorism Female Terrorists in Africa The Mau Mau Rebellion of Kenya Algerian National Liberation Front Liberation Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO) Zimbabwe Army of National Liberation Boko Haram of Nigeria Conclusion References 30 Women, Terrorism, and Media: Framing of Chibok and Dapchi Schoolgirls´ Abduction Stories in Television Introduction Context: Terrorism Against Women The Media and Terrorism in Africa Media Agenda Setting Theory and Public Opinion on Terrorism Research Method Test of Hypotheses Decision Rule Media Framing of the Chibok and Dapchi Schoolgirls´ Abduction Stories Conclusion References 31 Women and Peace Processes in Africa Introduction Peace Processes Conflicts in Africa The Need for Inclusion of Women in Peace Processes Women´s Roles in Peace Processes in Africa Involvement of Women in Peace Processes: Impacts and Challenges Conclusion References 32 Women and Peacebuilding in Postconflict African States Introduction Women in War, Peace, and Postconflict Reconstruction Processes Woman Peacemaker Peacebuilding Within Patriarchal Systems Women Organizations Conclusion References 33 Women and Peace Education in Africa Introduction Development of Peace Education African Women´s Involvement in Peace Education Strategies of African Women in Peace Education Broader Impact of African Women in Peace Education Conclusion References 34 African Women and Peace Education: Field Experiences Introduction Peace and Peace Education as Gendered Concepts Peace Education as Transformative Education Making a Case for African Women as Peace Educators Understanding the Multiple Roles of Women African Women as Critical Agents in Promoting Peace Education Challenges and Risks for African Women Mobilizing for Peace Education Conclusion References 35 DDR and the Education of Ex-Combatant Girls in Africa: A Gendered Analysis Introduction DDR, Education, and Child Soldiers: Overview Child Soldiers in African Conflicts DDR and Child Soldiers in Africa A Gendered Analysis of DDR and the Education of Ex-Combatant Girls Way Forward for Future DDR Programs Conclusion Cross-References References 36 Women and Transitional Justice Processes in Africa Introduction The Goals and Objectives of Transitional Justice: Adding an African Woman´s Voice Case Study Analysis The Legacy of the Conflict in Uganda Gender-Specific Mandate of the Transitional Justice System in Uganda Women´s Participation in the Ugandan Transitional Justice Processes The Conflict in Liberia Gender-Specific Mandate of the Transitional Justice Mechanism in Liberia Women and Transitional Justice Processes The Legacy of the Conflict in Sierra Leone Gender-Specific Mandate of Transitional Justice System in Sierra Leone Women´s Participation in Transitional Justice Processes Women in Transitional Justice in Rwanda Gender-Specific Mandate of Transitional Justice System in Rwanda The Legacy of the Conflict in South Africa Gender-Specific Mandates of Transitional Justice System in South Africa Women´s Participation in Transitional Justice Processes Comparative Analysis of Transitional Justice Processes in Multi-Case Studies Conclusion References 37 Women and Transitional Justice in Africa and Latin America Introduction Understanding Structural Gender Disparities Recognition and Acknowledgment of Gender-Specific Harms Against Women Institutionalizing Gender-Specific Reparative Policies Women´s Participation in Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Conclusion References 38 Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and Women´s Rights: Africa in Global Context Introduction Women´s Rights Are Human Rights The Incidence of Conflict-Related Sexual Violence The Patterns and Forms of Conflict-Related Sexual Violence Rape in War Sexual Slavery as a Form of Sexual Violence in War Forced Marriage, Forced Impregnation, and Forced Maternity Coerced Undressing Rights Violated Through the Perpetration of Sexual Violence in War Zones Violation of the Right to Life The Right to Freedom of Expression The Abuse of the Right to Education Sexual and Reproductive Rights Right to Personal Dignity The Right to Reparations for Victims of Conflict-Related Sexual Violence Necessity of the Reparation of Wartime Sexual Violence Victims Rights Violated Categories of Reparations Needed by Victims of Wartime Sexual Violence Transformative Reparation Conclusion References 39 The United Nations and African Women in Peace, Security, and Governance Introduction The African Woman, Peace, Security, Governance: Conceptual and Theoretical Interrogation United Nations and the Women, Peace and Security Agenda African Women in Peace, Security, and Governance African Women´s Involvement in Peace and Security Moves to Sustain Higher Levels of Women Involvement Peacebuilding United Nations Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 1325 and Its Effects on African Women Challenges of WPS Agenda Conclusion References 40 UNSCR 1325 and African Women in Conflict and Peace Introduction African Conflicts and Its Gendered Impact on Women Emergence of UNSCR 1325: Conceptual Issues The African Union, Regional Economic Communities, and National Implementation of UNSCR 1325 Implementing UNSCR 1325 in Africa: Progress and Problems Conclusion References Women and Gender-Based Violence (GBV) in Africa 41 Violence Against Women in North Africa Introduction Scale, Scope, and Severity of VAW in North Africa Women´s Movements Against VAW: Strategies and Interventions Protective Legal Frames: Trends and Tendencies Conclusion Cross-References References 42 Sexual Offences in Africa Introduction Defining and Contextualizing Sexual Offences in Africa The Magnitude of Sexual Offences in Africa Prevalence Data International Frameworks and Norms on Sexual Offences International and Regional Instruments Domestication of International and Regional Instruments: Country-Level Sexual Offences Laws Responding to Sexual Offences in Africa: A Whole Sector Approach Conclusion References 43 Violence Against LGBT(QI) Persons in Africa Introduction Forms of Violence Experienced by LGBT(QI) Individuals in Africa Sexual Violence Criminalization of Identification as LGBT(QI) Individuals Derogation Exclusion Rejection Labeling Banning from Social Gatherings Sources of Violence Against the LGBT(QI) Communities in Africa Protecting Heteronormativity Adherence to National Laws Perpetuating Inequality Religion The Impact of Violence on the LGBT(QI) Community in Africa Challenges in Accessing Healthcare Fleeing the Country Subjection to Systemic Abuse/Police Brutality Strategies for Averting Violence Against LGBT(QI) Individuals Inclusion of Clauses to Protect LGBT(QI) Individuals in the Laws of the Country Enshrining Mechanisms for Implementation of Non-discrimination Clauses Social Mobilization to Fight for the Rights of LGBT(QI) Individuals LGBT(QI) Activism in Africa and the Way Forward Conclusion References 44 Girls, Sexuality, and Gender-Based Violence in Africa Introduction Theoretical Underpinnings Male Versus Female Values Girls and Women as Spoils of War Girlhood in Africa Anatomy of Gender-Based Violence in Africa Conflict and Terrorism Globalizing Influences: The Internet and Social Media Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) Early and Forced Marriage Perception of Sexual Minorities Understanding Gender-Based Violence in Africa Any Safe Spaces for Girls in Africa? Responses to GBV: Girls´ Empowerment Conclusion References 45 Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in Africa: Patriarchy and Policy Introduction Types of FGM/C and Women´s Health Implications Debates on the Cultural Practice of FGM/C The Role of Patriarchy in the Practice of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting Global Efforts Toward FGM/C Eradication Policy Interventions Conclusion References 46 Women in African Prisons Introduction Prison and the Law The Making of ``Prisons´´ in Africa Conceptualizing Female Prisoner´s Mental Health in the Context of African Prisons African Prisons, Female Inmates, and Oppressive Gender Norms African Female Prisoners´ Well-Being and Mental Health Addressing the Mental Health of African Female Prisoners Conclusion References 47 Women, Trafficking, and Forced Prostitution in Africa Introduction Trafficking and Forced Prostitution in Africa Globalization, the International Political Order, and Trafficking and Forced Prostitution in Africa Push and Pull Factors in Trafficking and Forced Prostitution in Africa Case Studies and Trends Policy Issues and Evaluation Conclusion References 48 Non-state Actors and Violence Against Women in Africa Introduction Non-state Actors and Gender-Based Violence Non-state Actors in the Family Non-state Actors in the Community Non-state Actors in the Context of Conflict The Roles of Non-state Actors and the Challenges of Eliminating Violence Against Women Conclusion References 49 Violence and Women´s Health in Africa Introduction Forms of Violence Affecting Women´s Health Causes of Violence Against Women Violence and Women´s Health Physical Injuries Psychological and Mental Health Injuries Reproductive and Genital Injuries Combating Violence Against Women Conclusion References 50 Alternative Rites of Passage and Other Responses to Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in Africa Introduction Research Methods and Theoretical Underpinnings The Criminalization of FGM/C and Unintended Consequences of Legal and Policy Approaches The Unintended Consequences of Anti-FGM Legislation and Community Tensions Cross Border FGM/C Can Laws Criminalize Culture? Tensions with Criminalization of FGM Community Wide Approaches to FGM/C in Africa: Tostan Village Empowerment Models in West Africa FGM/C Villages in Egypt Safe Houses and Rescue Centers in Kenya Education and School Based Models in Kenya Promising Approaches: Leveraging the Role of Multiple and Wide Range Community Actors Working with Spiritual/Religious Leaders Working with Young Men: The Case of Anticut in Kenya Intergenerational Dialogue Approaches Emerging Approaches: Understanding and Transforming Social and Gender Norms Alternative Rites of Passage (ARPs) in East Africa: Perspective from Kenya The History of ARPs in East Africa AMREF Alternative Rites of Passage Model Among the Maasai and Samburu of Kenya Conclusion References 51 The Response to Gender-Based Violence in Africa Introduction Gender-Based Violence During the Colonial Period Gender-Based Violence in Postindependence Africa Conclusion References (Re)Writing African Womens Histories 52 A History of African Women from Origins to 800 CE: Bold Grandmas, Powerful Queens, Audacious Entrepreneurs Introduction African Concepts of Gender and Gendered Institutions The Bantu Matrilineal Belt-Sidebar Eve and Her Grandmother The Gatherer Becomes the Farmer Female Power in the Afroasiatic Ancient World Circumcision and Labia Stretching-Sidebar West Africa and the Bantu Migration 4500 BCE to 1000 CE Bantu Grammar-Sidebar Conclusion References 53 A History of African Women from 800 CE to 1900: Bold Grandmas, Powerful Queens, Audacious Entrepreneurs Introduction African Women, Islam, and Gold, 800 CE to 1800 CE Somali Women and 1992 Famine in Baidoa: Sidebar Women and the Slave Trade 1500 CE to 1880 CE East, Central, and Southern Africa: Elite Women and Centralized Societies 1500-1800 Jihad and West African Women 1700-1900 African Women and the Domination of Europe to 1900 Empress Taytu: Sidebar Conclusion References Interviews in Baidoa, Somalia, 1992 54 African Women and the Atlantic Slave Trade Introduction Origins The Transatlantic Slave Trade Women in the Transatlantic Slave Trade Middle Passage on Land Middle Passage at Sea Historiography Conclusion Cross-References References 55 Women in Pre-colonial Africa: East Africa Introduction Motherhood and Marriage Women, Power, and Politics Women, Work, Trade, and Mobility Women, Slavery, and the Slave Trade Women and Religious Rituals Conclusion References 56 Women in Pre-colonial Africa: West Africa Introduction Women and Society Women and Public Life Women and the Economy Women and Traditional Religion Conclusion References 57 Women in Pre-colonial Africa: Southern Africa Introduction Matrimonial Matters in Pre-colonial Southern Africa: Lobola (Bride Price) and Marriage Women as Active Agents of Production Women´s Influence in Politics and Religion Women as Political Leaders Women as Religious and Spiritual Leaders Conclusion References 58 Women in Colonial East Africa Introduction Context Land, Labor, and Agriculture Trade Education Politics, Nationalism, and the Liberation Struggle Conclusion References 59 North African Women and Colonialism Introduction North African Women and the Colonial Encounter(s) Women´s Activism in Algeria Women´s Activism in Tunisia Women´s Activism in Morocco Women´s Activism in Egypt Conclusion References 60 Women and Colonialism in West Africa Introduction Leadership Roles of Women in Precolonial West Africa Women and Economic Development in Colonial West Africa Women´s Resistance to Colonialism in West Africa Impact of Colonialism on West African Women Conclusion References 61 Women and Colonialism: Southern Africa Introduction Women as Agents of Reproduction and Production Colonial Laborers Women in Traditional Leadership and Liberation Struggles Women in Traditional Leadership Women in the Liberation Struggle Conclusion References 62 Women and Colonialism Across Africa Introduction Colonial Rule: The African Woman and the Challenges of Change Women, Colonialism, and the Ideas of Empire in Africa Women and the Politics of Public Life African Women and the Mechanics of Colonial Social and Economic Growth African Women and Anti-Colonial Struggles: The Nationalist Phase Radical Womanhood: Women and Armed Resistance to Colonial Rule in Africa Conclusion Cross-References References 63 Writing Nigerian Women´s Political History Introduction The Political History of Nigerian Women The Gaps and Recommendations for Further Studies on Nigerian Women Conclusion References 64 Writing Nigerian Women in the Economy, Education, and Literature Introduction Nigerian Women and the Nation´s Economy Nigerian Women in Education and Academia Nigerian Women in Literature The Gaps and Recommendations for Further Studies on Nigerian Women Conclusion References 65 Gender, Authority, and Identity in African History: Heterarchy, Cosmic Families and Lifestages Introduction Heterarchy Cosmic Family Processual Lifestages Conclusion: Future Research References 66 Colonialism and Gender in Africa: A Critical History Introduction From the Distant Past to the More Recent Past Colonialism and the Gender Paradigm in Africa Emerging Trends in African Gender Narratives Conclusion References 67 Women, Colonial Resistance, and Decolonization: Challenging African Histories Introduction A Man´s World? Politics, Anticolonialism, and Statehood Out of One, Many: African Women as Agents Despite the European Gaze A Feminist Curiosity: Where Were the Women? Rewriting the Birth of the African State Conclusion References 68 African Women´s Letters as Intellectual History and Decolonial Knowledge Production Introduction Liminality and the Politics of Writing Negotiating and Remaking the World Through Letters Conclusion References 69 Challenges of Writing African Women´s Histories Introduction Works on African Women´s History Challenges of Writing African Women´s History: The Reports of Scholars Mitigating the Challenges of Writing African Women´s Histories Conclusion References Women´s Movements in Africa 70 Women, Social Movements and Political Activism in North Africa Introduction The Status of North African Women: Historical Background The Status of North African Women Today Policy and Legal Matters Family Code Employment/Unemployment Political Participation The Impact of Women´s Organizations Gains in Family Law Gains in Political Participation Conclusion References 71 The Arab Spring and Women´s Movements in North Africa Introduction Background: State Policy, Women´s Rights, and the Arab Spring Frames and Strategies of Women´s Activism Islamic Feminism and Islamist Women´s Activism: How They Differ Activism During and After the Arab Spring Women on the Move: Vulnerability and Agency of Migrant Women Women´s Journeys Across the Sahara Women in Migrant Communities in North Africa The Women ``Left Behind´´ Conclusions References 72 Rural Women Farmers´ Grassroots Networks in Africa Introduction Women Farmers Transmit Specialist Knowledge Marketing Strategies of Women Vegetable Growers Helpful Interventions The Power of Empowerment Conclusion References 73 African Women's Movements and Struggles over Land Introduction Women´s Movements and Policy Change Barriers to Pro-woman Land and Property Rights Policy Change Policy Progress and Continued Struggle Advancing Women´s Land Rights Through the Courts? Advancing Land and Livelihood Rights Through Everyday Struggle Conclusions and Future Directions References Court Cases Other References 74 LGBTI+ Organizations in Southern and East Africa: Fighting for Equal Rights Introduction Southern Africa Eastern and Central Africa Conclusion References Selected Websites 75 LGBTI+ Organizations in West Africa and North Africa: Fighting for Equal Rights Introduction West Africa North Africa Conclusions References Selected Websites 76 The ``Subalternity´´ of Women in Social Movements and African Politics Introduction African Feminism, Postcolonial Feminism, and Decolonial Feminism Patriarchy and the Politics of Representation Case Studies Queen Lozikeyi and Mbuya Nehanda: A Missed Articulation The African National Congress and Women Politics Feminists at Tahrir Square, Egypt in 2011 and at Solomon Mahlangu House, South Africa in 2015 Conclusion: The Desirability of a Strong Feminism References 77 The African Diaspora and Women´s Struggles in Africa Introduction The African Diaspora African Women and Anti-colonial and Independence Struggles The African Diaspora and African Women Struggles for Independence African Women and the Struggles Toward Democratization and Regime Change The African Diaspora and Women Struggles for Peaceful and Democratic Societies African Women and the Struggles for Sustainable Livelihoods in Africa The African Diaspora and African Women Collective Actions for Sustainable Livelihood Conclusion References 78 The United Nations and African Women´s Movements Introduction Engagements of the United Nations with African Women´s Movements Assessment of the United Nations´ Efforts in the Promotion of Women´s Rights in Africa Limitations to the Activism of African Women´s Movements Conclusion References 79 African Women´s Movements and the African Union Introduction The Transition from the OAU to the AU Overview of the African Union Gender Framework Advocating for Women´s Rights: The Protocol on the Rights of Women in Africa Monitoring Compliance with AU Gender Equity Policies Conclusions References African Women and Development Processes 80 African Women´s Formal and Informal Labor: A Comparative History Introduction History of Women´s Labor in Africa (from the Precolonial to the Present) Contemporary Debates: Female Labor Under Capitalist Production Capitalist Production, Women´s Labor, and the Crisis of Social Reproduction Conclusion References 81 Women and Community Development in Rural Africa: Deconstructing Dominant Narratives Introduction Perspectives on Women, Rural Communities and African Development Women Within Africa´s Rural Community Development Context Reimagining African Women in Rural Community Development Conclusion References 82 Women, Land, and Law in Africa Introduction Conceptual/Theoretical Frameworks on Women and Land Rights The Rights-Based Theory The Concept of Empowerment and Women´s Land Rights African Customary Land Law Statutory Laws Regulating Land Ownership in Africa Institutional Frameworks for Securing Women´s Land Rights in Africa Constitutional Courts Civil Society Organizations Land Law Reforms Best Practices for Enhancing Women´s Land Rights in Africa Conclusion References 83 Women, Entrepreneurship, and Economic Development in Africa Introduction The Development Agenda in Africa Entrepreneurship as a Driver of Development Women and Entrepreneurship Filling the Gap: Creating Entrepreneurial Ecosystems Conclusion: Envisioning Africa´s Economy in the Twenty-First Century References 84 Women in Agriculture in Contemporary Africa Introduction Women and Land Ownership in Africa Women and Agricultural Labor Women and Livestock Production Marketing and Decision-Making Within African Agricultural Households Gendered Aspects of Horticultural Production Women, Rural Entrepreneurship, and Financing Women and Agricultural Policy in Africa Women, Agricultural Livelihoods, and Climate Change in African Contexts Young Women and Agriculture Conclusions References 85 African Women in University Management and Leadership Introduction Women and Leadership in African HE Forces and Factors Affecting Women in HE Structural/Institutional: Inequality and Representation Historical and Socio-Cultural: Tension Between Inclusive Policies and Cultural Norms Individual/Personal: African Women´s Identities and Agency Inclusion Strategies: A Transformation Agenda Conclusion References 86 African Women, Technology, and ICTs Introduction The Technological Revolution and the ICT Potential for Women in Africa Emerging African Women IT Developers Inhibiting Factors and Future Policy Directives Conclusion References 87 Women, Poverty, and Empowerment in Africa Introduction Women, Poverty, and Feminization of Poverty in Africa Women´s Empowerment as a Panacea to Poverty Reduction in Africa Conclusion References 88 Women´s Empowerment and Women´s Health in Africa Introduction Women´s Empowerment and Women´s Health: Conceptual Clarification Women´s Health Challenges in Africa HIV/AIDS Prevalence Among Women Across Africa Women´s Reproductive Health Challenges in Africa Domestic Violence Against Women Gender Inequality and Women´s Health Challenges Across Africa Women´s Empowerment and Women´s Health Women´s Economic Empowerment and Women´s Health Women´s Education and Women´s Access to Health Care Conclusion References 89 Women and Development Policies in African States Introduction Key Development Policies and African Development The Structural Adjustment Policy in Africa Women and Development Policies in Africa Why Development Policies Failed to Benefit Women Much in Africa Conclusion References 90 Women, Climate Change, and Sustainable Development in Africa Introduction Women and Nature/Environment Theoretical Debate Women and Climate Change in SSA Nature and Trends of Women and Climate Change Impact (CCI) in SSA Multisector Analysis of CCI from FPE Standpoint Implications of CCI for Sustainable Development (SD) in SSA Conclusion/Recommendations References 91 Gender Budgeting in Africa Introduction Gender Economic Programs and Policies in Africa: An Overview Nature of Gender Budgets Dimensions to Gender Budgeting Role of Gender Budgeting in Gender Development Gender Budgeting for Gender Equality in Africa Evolving a People-Public-Private Partnership Committed and Working Governance Structure Mainstream National Gender Goals into Budgets Holistic and Inclusive Government Structure Monitoring and Evaluation for Feedbacks Conclusion References 92 Gender and Migration in North Africa Introduction Setting the Ground: Migration to/Out of North African Countries History/Trends Causes Gender Dimensions of the Migration Movements Changing Gender Roles in Migration Conclusion References 93 Women, Migration, and Development in Africa Introduction Nature and Patterns of Women´s Migration in Africa Factors and Forces Influencing Women´s Migration in Africa Women´s Migration and African Development Women, Migration Policies, and African Development Conclusion References 94 African Diaspora Women and African Development Introduction Diaspora Development Diaspora and Development African Diaspora Women and Transnationalism African Diaspora Women in a Globalized World of Development African Diaspora Women and International Feminist Politics Conclusion References 95 African Women and Globalization Introduction Towards a Conceptual Framework Intra-continental Crossborder Traders Inter-continental Crossborder Traders Conclusion References African Womens Creativity, Arts, and Performance 96 Women and Art in Africa: A Historical View Introduction African Women as Artists: A Case Study from Hellenistic Egypt Female Images and Efficacy in African Art: A Case Study from the Kingdom of Benin, Nigeria African Women as Patrons: A Case Study from Liberia African Women as Curators and Critics: A Case Study from the City of Lagos, Nigeria Women´s Contributions to the Arts: Painting and Engraving Women´s Contributions to the Arts: Weaving and Fiber Arts Women´s Contributions to the Arts: Ceramic Vessels and Sculpture Women´s Contributions to the Arts: Installations and Performance References 97 African Women in African Arts: Making Art for Change Introduction Women Artists in African Homelands Conclusion References 98 African Women in African Arts: Activists, Cultural Brokers, and Boundary Breakers Introduction Conclusion References 99 African Women Writers Introduction Background The First Wave The Second Wave Autobiographical Voices of the Second Wave Third Wave Conclusion References 100 Women and North African Literatures Introduction Contextualizing Gender and Gender Relations in the Maghreb Writing as a Form of Speaking Back to Patriarchy Rethinking Femininity and Female Sexuality The Sociopolitical Potentiality of Literature in the Empowerment of Women Conclusion References 101 African Women and African Oral Literatures Introduction Nature and Features of African Oral Literature Perceptions About Women in African Oral Literature Roles of Women in African Oral Literature Gender Dynamics in African Oral Literature Continuities and Change in the Depiction and Roles of Women in African Oral Literature Conclusion References 102 African Women and Theatre for Development Introduction Evolution of Theatre for Development in Africa Theoretical Inclination Women as Producers and Presenters of Knowledge in Africa Women as Characters or ``Spect-Actors´´ in the Performances Women as Part of the Audience Donors, Funding, and Theatre for Development Conclusion References 103 Nollywood and Women Introduction Nollywood: Issues and Challenges Female Representation in Nollywood Movies Women in Nollywood Film Industry: A Sociohistorical Study Women in Nollywood: Contributing to National Values and Development Female Film Producers and Directors in Nollywood Female Actors in Nollywood Conclusion References 104 African Women Hip-Hop Artists Representing Transnational Identities: Y3 Fr3 Me Rebel Introduction Transcultural Identities The Metaphysical Race and Racism Gender Relationships Conclusion References 105 African Women in Sports: A Critical Analysis of Selected Media Discourses Introduction Methodology Frames and Metaphors for Constructing African Sportswomen´s Experiences Animation Grace and Disgrace Sex, Gender, and Sexuality Conclusion References 106 African Women´s Internet Discourses Introduction Islamic Feminists Secular Feminists Speaking Rights to Power on Facebook Subverting Masculinist Political Discourse Conclusion References Facebook Blogs Twitter 107 Women, Social Media, and Culture in Africa Introduction Theoretical Framework Women, Media, and Patriarchy in Africa African Women Harnessing Social Media for Cultural Change Social Media as a Tool for Shaping Public Opinion Social Media for Women Empowerment Social Media as a Tool for Women´s Advocacy Social Media for Gender Justice Social Media for Changing Gender Norms and Replacing Traditional Gender Stereotypes Social Media for Social Movements Conclusion References 108 African Women and the Mass Media Introduction African Women in the Mass Media Historically Women´s Representation in the Media: Visibility, Portrayal, and Influence Women in Media Development, for Media Development, and as Media Developers Women for Media Development Women as Media Developers Conclusion References African Women, Culture, and Society 109 African Women Traditional Chiefs and Rulers Introduction Women Leaders Before Colonial Annexation West Africa Mende Women Traditional Leaders Asante Queen Mothers Central Africa Matamba Lunda Southern Africa Lovedu Rain Queens Swazi East Africa Buganda Bunyoro Women Leaders and the Impact of Colonization Asante Mende Igboland: Ahebi Ugbabe, the Female King Buganda Queen Mothers Traditional Women Leaders in the Contemporary Era Mende Women Chiefs Swazi Queens Asante Queen Mothers Conclusion References 110 Women, Islam, and the State in North Africa Introduction Setting the Ground: The Premodern Era Modern Era: Colonization, Nationalism, and State-Building Postmodern Era: New Developments Conclusion References 111 Women, Islam, and the Law: Womanism, Shari´a, and Human Rights in Africa Introduction Shari´a Women´s Right to Equality Before the Law and Equal Protection of the Law (S. Mahmassani 1966) Women´s Right to Legal Disposition The Right to Equal Opportunity for Marriage Equal Rights to Legal Capacity in Civil Matters Women´s Rights to Participation in Public Affairs, Including Elections Women´s Rights on Issues of Family Roles Role of Qadis´ and Legal Practitioners in the Protection of the Rights of Women Conclusion References 112 Representations of North African Women and African Islamic Religion in El Saadawi´s Zeina Introduction Archetypal Images of African Women Under African Islamic Religion Protestant Images of African Women Against Egyptian Islamic Religion Ambiguities in the Responses of Arab Women to a Toxic Islamic Religion in Zeina Conclusion References 113 Women and Christianity in Africa Introduction Early Christianity´s First Encounter with Africa The Place of Women in Early African Christianity The Portuguese and the Second Encounter of Christianity with Africa The Missionary Era as Third Wave of Christianity in Africa Missionary Education of Girls Women in the African Mission Churches Perceptions About Women in Church Ministry in Africa Present Experiences and Realities The Rise of the African Independent Church (AIC) Movement The AIC Movement as a Platform for Women´s Leading Roles in the Church Women´s Leadership in the Pentecostal Churches African Women´s Contribution to Theological and Biblical Studies Notable Women Theologians and Biblical Scholars Conclusion References 114 Women and African Traditional Religion Introduction Throwing Out the Baby with the Bath Water: Evaluating the Influence of Terminologies African Worldview, African Traditional Religion, and Its Features: The Context Women in ATR The Construction of Gender Politics in ATR The Masculinization of ATR Politicizing the Ritual Practices and Space: Beyond Performance? Conclusion References 115 Womb Wisdom to Cosmic Wisdom: Women and African Spiritualities in Africa and the Diaspora Introduction Transformations of Yoruba and Other African Ideations in Dialogue with the Non-African Contrastive Responses to Female Bodies in Classical Yoruba Thought Ayele Kumari and Womb Wisdom Kumari´s Development of Cosmological and Human-Centered African Female Spirituality Susanne Wenger and the Metaphysics of Female Biology Rethinking the Paradoxical Characterization of Iyami Aje in Yoruba Thought Susanne Wenger on Nature Enabled Mystical Flight of Iyami Aje Ayele Kumari on Iyami Aje Bello Olarinmoye and Yoruba Women´s Occult Mysteries The Secular Spirituality of Erotic Artist Tiara Kristine Tiara Kristine and Goddess Energy Nyornuwofia Agorsor, Inscriber on Voidness Conclusion References 116 The Role of Religion and Faith Actors in Violence Against Women and Girls in Africa: Challenges, Tensions, and Promise Introduction Making Sense of VAWG! The Drivers of Violence Against Women and Girls Engaging Religion and Faith Groups in VAWG: Problems, Challenges, and Promise Religious and Faith-Based Response to VAWG: Some Recent Developments Faith-Based Organizations in HIV/AIDs Support The Role of Faith Actors in FGM/C Eradication and Early Marriage in Kenya The Tamar Campaign: Christian Clergy Breaking the Silence Around Rape and Other Forms Sexual- and Gender-Based Violence (SGBV) The Power of Hashtags! FBOs Creating a World Without Rape Through #ThursdaysinBlack# The Role of Male Allies: Living as First Man Standing (LAFMS) Campaign Transforming Masculinities in Africa: A Faith-Based Approach to GBV Women´s Voices and Activism: Feminist Theologians and Their Role in VAWGs Conclusion References 117 Gender, Motherhood, and Parenting in Africa Introduction African Feminist Theorizations on Motherhood: Intersectionality Theory Nigeria Mothering Within the Network of Care Ethiopia Zimbabwe South Africa Mothering and the Role of the Kinship System Mothering and the Role of Paid Domestic Labor Changing Motherhood: A Double Discourse The Mothering Practice and Domestic Division of Labor The Role of Education and Employment in Changing Motherhood The Changing Perceptions of a ``Good Mother´´ Motherhood and Work-Family Conflict Cultural Lag Conclusion References 118 Women in African Marriages: Voice, Visibility, and Value Introduction Communal Nature of Marriage and the Cost of Weddings The Practice of Bride Price or Bridewealth Response to Marital Infidelity Conclusion References 119 Widows, Widowhood, and Society in Africa Introduction Widow and Widowhood Theoretical Framework African Marriage: Significance and Benefits Struggles of Widows Widowhood Rites in African Societies Case Studies Property Rights: Economic Trauma Health Spirituality/Religion Selfhood and Personhood Ethics of Addressing Widowhood Conclusion References 120 African Queer Women Tackling Erasure and Ostracization: Love, Lust, and Lived Experience Introduction Definition of ``Queer´´: Breaking Down the LGBTIQ Queer Narratives in Archive and Conversation Queer Contemporary Conversations and Content: Using the Digital Realm: Websites, Blogs, and Podcasts HOLAAfrica and The Wildness with Tiff & Manda: A Digital Hub for and by African Queer Women Kenyan Baby Dyke: Making Safe Inclusive Spaces for the Kenyan Queer Community Taking it Offline: Plays, #PleaseHer, and Facilitated Dialogues Speaking Sex: #PleaseHer Safe Sex and Pleasure Workshops #JustLikeUs: Queer University and Speakeasies in Ghana Conclusion References 121 Gender, Disability, and Human Rights in Africa Introduction Gender, Disability, and Human Rights: The Nexus Human Rights of Women with Disabilities in Africa. A Look into Specific Rights Right to Life and Dignity of Person Equality and Nondiscrimination Right to Health Right to Bodily Integrity and Freedom from Abuse Rights to Family Access to Justice By All Means Necessary: Coping Strategies of WWDs to the Disabling Environment Conclusion References 122 African Women and HIV and AIDS Introduction Historical Background Risk Factors Exacerbating African Women´s Vulnerability to HIV Contextual Risk Factors: Traditional and Cultural Vulnerabilities Behavioral Vulnerabilities Structural Vulnerabilities HIV Prevention Strategies Targeted at African Women Biomedical Interventions Structural Interventions Dreams: A Multifaceted Approach Conclusion and Areas for Further Research References 123 Girls´ Sexuality Between Agency and Vulnerability Introduction Researching Girls´ Sexuality in the Context of African Childhoods Conclusion References 124 African Young Women and Alcohol and Substance Abuse Introduction Southern Africa: Alcohol and Substance Use Among South African and Botswana Young Women West Africa: Alcohol and Substance Use Among Nigerian and Ghanaian Young Women East Africa: Alcohol and Substance Use Among Ugandan, Kenyan and Tanzanian Young Women Conclusion References 125 Women and Girls´ Education in Africa: Changes and Continuities Introduction Some Theoretical Considerations Women and Girls´ Education in Traditional Africa Getting Women and Girls into School: Significant Progress at Primary Education Increased Access to Secondary Education with Continued Gender Disparities Higher Education Remains a Dream for Many Young Women in Africa Change and Stasis in Education of Women and Girls in Africa Significant Shifts in Widening Opportunities for Women and Girls but Continued Women´s Marginalization Conclusion References 126 Women in Universities in Africa Introduction Gender and Women´s Studies in African Universities Historical Legacies The Gender Question and Remaking Institutional Cultures Remaking Institutional Cultures Access Senior Management Gender Balance, Work, and Home Recent Changes Conclusion References 127 Girl-Child, Health, and Education in Africa Introduction Who Is a Girl-Child? Girl-Child Education SDG 4 Girls´ Health and Education Challenges Facing the Girl-Child Education in Africa Conclusion References 128 Women in Pastoral Societies in Africa Introduction Pastoralism in Africa Gender Social Conflict as Theoretical Frame for Analysis Social Contributions of Women in African Pastoral Societies Contracting Marriage Pregnancy and Postpartum Activities Pastoral Female Childhood, Adolescents, and Adulthood Economic Contributions of Women in African Pastoral Societies Cultural and Health Constraints Confronting Pastoral Women in Africa Conclusion References 129 Gender, Migration, and African Cultures Introduction Women as Creators of Culture African Women´s Agency Through and Despite Migration Global African Womanhood Unwritten, and Yet Written African Cultures as the Well for Women to Pull and Pour African Woman as Mother African Woman as Leader African Woman as Community Member Conclusion References 130 African Women, Culture, and Society in Contemporary African Novels Introduction Sociology and African Literature Women in African Literature: A Literature Review Male Authors´ Portrayal of Women in African Literature Female Authors´ Portrayal of Women in African Literature Representing African Women, Society, and Culture in Contemporary African Female Novels Conclusion References 131 Culture, Rights, and African Women´s Futures Introduction Difference and Culture Engaging the Frame Of Rights and the Right to Dignity and Being On Futures: Cyborgs, Chameleons, and (Afro)Futuristic Ruptures Conclusion References Section XI: Conclusion 132 Conclusion: Charting Future Paths for African Women´s Studies State of the Field: Research and Knowledge Production on Women in Africa Representation: Whose Research? Representation: What Issues? Charting Paths for the Future Representation: Whose Issues? Representation: Whose Research? In Conclusion: Who Benefits? References Index