Formation and Resolution of Ideological Contrast in the Early History of Scandinavia

Description

Some recent studies concerning early medieval Europe have suggested that Scandinavia and Francia represented two ideological poles with which other populations within the Germanic world might have intended to align themselves. While such a view sometimes may be useful, it may also over-simplify a more complex situation. Scandinavians must have recognised cultural distinctions between themselves and Christian Europeans, but may not have viewed these distinctions necessarily as emblems of opposition unless faced by a direct political or military threat. Indeed, ideological contrasts concerning the way society was structured and power was wielded may have cut across apparent ethnic boundaries. Roman influences on early Germanic society may have assisted in the creation of a ‘Germanic’ identity. Roman pressure also may have affected the development of Germanic governmental structures, encouraging king-centred governmental ideologies that contrasted with possibly older, assembly-centred systems. Scandinavia, never threatened by Roman domination, may have retained assembly-centred structures longer than other Germanic societies. Southern Scandinavia’s ‘central places’ of the Early Germanic Iron Age, such as Gudme, may have had functions comparable with those of the later Old Saxon Assembly and Icelandic Alþingi. Such sites may have provided a focus for an emergent Scandinavian identity. This assembly-centred system may have been disrupted as chieftains struggled to attain the kind of power enjoyed by their counterparts in king-centred societies (much as happened in medieval Iceland), perhaps explaining the poverty of archaeological finds in the region from the Late Germanic Iron Age. The growing Frankish threat to Scandinavia in the eighth century may have both spurred further consolidation of power in the hands of the élite and, initially, provoked an ideological reaction against Christian Europe. Yet while wary of domination by Christian European kingdoms, the Viking-Age Scandinavian élite may have envied their powerful model of lordship and had an interest in accessing elements of their culture. Such a situation may be reflected in historical legends, particularly the Scylding-Skjǫldung cycle, which perhaps developed during the Viking Age. These legends might represent not source material for historical glimpses of early northern Europe (as is often assumed) but rather Scandinavian attempts at self-definition in relation to the burgeoning and powerful cultures of Christian Europe. Scandinavia’s eventual adoption of Christianity and Christian lordship in the course of the Viking Age largely resolved the ideological contrasts that had existed both within Scandinavian society and between Scandinavia and Christian Europe. Title Page Preface Summary Contents Abbreviations Note on Names and Terms Introduction Terminology: Names Terminology: Dates Chapter 1: Aspects of Political and Social Developments in Germania and Scandinavia during the Roman Iron Age 1.1 Rome & Germania 1.1.1 Early Romano-Germanic Relations 1.1.2 The Emergence of Germanic Identity? 1.2 Roman Influence on Early Germanic Government 1.2.1 Germanic Government: Concepts & Terms 1.2.2 Tacitus' Description of Germanic Government 1.2.3 The Effects of the Roman Military & Political Threat 1.2.4 Horizontal & Vertical Government 1.3 Post-Classical Clashes between Differing Governmental Ideologies 1.3.1 Late Antique & Early Medieval Ideological Conflicts 1.3.2 Snorri's 'Friðgerðar saga': Medieval Scandinavian Ideological Conflict 1.4 Scandinavia into the RIA 1.4.1 Scandinavia before the Pre-RIA 1.4.2 Rome & the Emergence of the Élite in Scandinavia 1.5 Kingship in RIA Scandinavia? 1.5.1 Concentration of Wealth in Fyn & Sjælland 1.5.2 Stevns/Himlingøje: A Royal Centre on Sjælland? 1.5.3 Written Evidence for Kingship in Early Northern Europe? 1.5.4 Scandinavian Client Kingship in the LRIA? Chapter 2: Aspects of Political and Social Developments in Scandinavia during the Early Germanic Iron Age 2.1 Transition to the Early Germanic Iron Age 2.1.1 Changing Patterns of Wealth Deposition 2.1.2 Social Change Reflected in Wealth Deposition 2.2 Early Scandinavian Trade & Cult-Centres 2.2.1 New Centres of Wealth in the Danish Islands 2.2.2 Early Germanic Cults & Cult-Centres 2.3 Cult-Centre & Þing as Ideological Foci 2.3.1 The Icelandic Alþingi as Centre of Cult & Comimunity 2.3.2 The Old Saxon Assembly as Centre of Cult & Comimunity 2.4 Factors Affecting Germanic Cult-Centres' Establishment 2.4.1 The Situation in EGIA Scandinavia 2.4.2 The Icelandic Alþingi's Relative Uniqueness 2.4.3 Origins of the Old Saxon Assembly & the Icelandic Alþingi 2.4.4 Origins of an EGIA Scandinavian Cult-Centre? 2.5 Horizons of Germanic & Scandinavian Historical Legend 2.5.1 Early Germanic Legends? 2.5.2 Goths & Huns 2.5.3 Traces of Rome & Caesar 2.5.4 Discontinuity in Germanic Legend & Religion Chapter 3: Aspects of Political and Social Developments in Scandinavia during the Late Germanic Iron Age and Early Viking Age 3.1 The Late Germanic Iron Age: Dark Ages & Golden Ages 3.1.1 Brightening the Southern Scandinavian 'Dark Age' 3.1.2 Élite Attitudes 3.1.3 Iceland & Saxony as Examples 3.1.4 LGIA Scandinavia in Written Sources 3.1.5 LGIA Centres in the Baltic, Sweden, & Norway 3.2 Later Reflections of Nerthus's Cult 3.2.1 Nerthus & Njǫrðr Again 3.2.2 Freyr, Yngvi-Freyr, & Ing 3.2.3 Fróði 3.2.4 'Sleit Fróða frið fíanda á milli' 3.3 North Sea Religion, Trade, & Politics 3.3.1 Political Missions 3.3.2 Franks & Frisians 3.3.3 Franks & Saxons 3.3.4 Scandinavians in the Pre-Viking North Sea World 3.4 The Early Viking Age 3.4.1 Re-Emergence of the Southern Scandinavian Élite? 3.4.2 Franks, Saxons, & Scandinavians 3.4.3 Explaining the Viking Age 3.4.4 Scandinavian Religion & Politics in Relation to Christian Europe 3.4.5 Christianity & the Scandinavian Élite 3.4.6 Late Heathen 'Renaissance' Chapter 4: The Scylding-Skjǫldung Historial Legends: Some Historiography and Considerations 4.1 Early Historiography of Scandinavian Legend 4.1.1 The Pan-Germanic & Pan-Scandinavian Schools 4.1.2 Sophus Bugge & Axel Olrik 4.1.3 Wessén's 'Mixed Origins' Theory Table: Hrólfr (and Roluo) vs. Erulian king Rodulf 4.1.4 Fossilisation of Research on Historicity 4.2 Lukman's 'External Origins' Theories 4.2.1 Skjǫldungar & Skilfingar Trees: Scyldingas-Skjǫldungar Trees: Scylfingas Tree: Danubian Hunnish Leaders Trees: Rulers on the Danube and from Anglo-Scandinavian traditions 4.2.2 Fróði, Frotho, & Fravitta Table: Saxo's Frotho III vs. Fravitta 4.2.3 Critique of Lukman's Methodology 4.3 Hemmingsen's 'Late External Origins' Theory 4.3.1 Oral & Literate Interplay in Twelfth-Century Denmark 4.3.2 Critique of Hemmingsen's Theory Chapter 5: Reassessing the Scylding-Skjǫldung Historial Legends 5.1 Sources from the Viking Age 5.1.1 The Anglo-Saxon Sources 5.1.2 The Scandinavian Sources 5.1.3 Relationship between the Anglo-Saxon & Medieval Scandinavian Legends 5.2 Some Issues Concerning the Legends' Early Evolution 5.2.1 The Dynastic Titles 5.2.2 Bjarki & Bjarkamál 5.2.3 Hroþulf & Hrólfr 5.2.4 Heorot & Lejre 5.3 Environment for the Legends' Development 5.3.1 Post-Conversion Learned Corrections to Old Legends 5.3.2 Later Medieval Learned Corrections to Old Legends 5.3.3 Germanic Legend in Francia & Anglo-Saxon England 5.3.4 Learned Influence on Pre-Literate Scandinavian Historical Legend? Concluding Remarks Bibliography Primary Sources Secondary Sources