The Oxford Handbook Of Comparative Environmental Law

Description

This Handbook is the first comprehensive account of comparative environmental law. It examines in detail the methodological foundations of the discipline as well as the substance of environmental law across countries from four vantage points: country studies from all continents, responses to common problems (including air pollution, water management, nature conservation, genetically modified organisms, climate change and energy, chemicals, waste), foundational components of environmental law systems (including principles, property rights, administrative and judicial organisation, command-and-control regulation, market mechanisms, informational techniques and liability mechanisms), and common interactions of environmental protection with the broader public, private, and criminal law contexts. The volume brings together the foremost authorities in this field from around the world to provide a concise, self-contained, and technically rigorous account of environmental law as a single overall system. Cover......Page 1 The oxford handbook of COMPARATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL LAW......Page 4 Copyright......Page 5 Acknowledgements......Page 6 Contents......Page 8 Table of Cases......Page 14 Table of Legislation......Page 36 List of Contributors......Page 76 Abbreviations......Page 80 FRAMING COMPARATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL LAW......Page 82 Chapter 1: Comparative Environmental Law: Structuring a Field......Page 84 1.1 Overview......Page 85 1.2.1 Preliminary Observations......Page 89 1.2.2 The Historical Setting: Descriptive and Evolutionary Approaches......Page 91 1.2.3 The Conceptual Approach......Page 92 1.2.4 The Functionalist Approach......Page 93 1.2.5 The Factual Approach......Page 94 1.2.6 Legal Formants......Page 95 1.2.8 Legal Transplants......Page 96 1.2.9 From Comparative Method to Comparative Environmental Law......Page 97 1.3.1 Preliminary Observations......Page 98 1.3.2 Bottom-up Functionalism......Page 99 1.3.3 Top-down Functionalism......Page 100 1.3.4 The Functionalist Approach and the Specificities of Environmental Law......Page 102 1.4.1 Preliminary Observations......Page 104 1.4.2.2 Diversity across Jurisdictions......Page 105 1.4.2.3 Diversity in the Types of Responses to Common Problems......Page 106 1.4.2.4 Diversity of Building Blocks......Page 107 1.4.2.6 Overview of the Methodology......Page 109 1.4.3 The Architecture of Environmental Law as a Single Overall Technology......Page 110 1.5 Concluding Remarks: Structuring a Field......Page 111 On comparative law and method......Page 112 On environmental law and policy......Page 113 On comparative environmental law......Page 114 Chapter 2: Value in Comparative Environmental Law—3D Cartography and Analytical Description......Page 116 2.1 Introduction......Page 117 2.2 Instrumentality......Page 120 2.2.1 Culture Within Law—Rule of Law......Page 121 2.2.2.1 Transplantation in Toto......Page 123 2.2.2.2 Failure in Design and Instrumental Outcomes......Page 124 2.2.3.1 Selective Detail to Allow for Analytical Comparison......Page 126 2.2.3.2 Design as Distinct from Causation......Page 127 2.2.4 Conclusions on Instrumentality......Page 128 2.3.1.1 Context in Individual Chapters......Page 129 2.3.1.2 Culture as Part of Structure......Page 130 2.3.2 The Attitude towards Compliance and Wider Cultural Approaches to ‘the Environment’......Page 131 2.3.3 Rights-based Thinking......Page 132 2.3.4 Constitutionality......Page 134 2.3.5 Conclusions on Legal Culture......Page 135 2.4 Value in Model-thinking......Page 136 Part I: COUNTRY STUDIES......Page 138 Chapter 3: Australia......Page 140 3.2.1 The Constitutional Structure of Australian Environmental Law......Page 141 3.2.1.1 The Division of Legislative Capacity Between the States and the Commonwealth......Page 142 3.2.1.2 The Relationship Between Commonwealth and State Legislation in Practice......Page 144 3.3 The Structure and Substance of Environmental Law......Page 146 3.3.1.1 Pollution......Page 147 3.3.1.2 Harm......Page 148 3.3.2.1 Protected Areas and Species......Page 149 3.3.2.2 Heritage Conservation......Page 150 3.3.3.1 Controlling Land Use......Page 151 3.3.3.2 Ecologically Sustainable Development and Climate Change......Page 152 3.3.3.3 Judicial Responses to Climate Change......Page 153 3.3.3.4 Statutory Responses to Climate Change......Page 154 3.3.3.5 The Relevance of Polycentric Decision-making......Page 156 3.4.2 The Need for Information and Analysis......Page 157 3.4.3.2 Enforcing Liability Rules......Page 158 3.4.3.4 The Nature of Environmental Litigation......Page 160 3.6 Selected Bibliography......Page 161 Chapter 4: Brazil......Page 163 4.1 Introduction......Page 164 4.2.1.1 Federal and State Government Ownership and Power to Manage Resources......Page 165 4.2.1.2 Power to Legislate on Environmental Matters......Page 166 4.2.2.2 Ecological Function of Property......Page 168 4.3.1 Development of Environmental Law in Brazil......Page 170 4.3.2.1 National Environmental Policy Act of 1981 (Lei 6938/81)......Page 171 4.3.2.2 Environmental Impact Assessment (CONAMA Regulation No. 1 of 1986 and No. 237 of 1997)......Page 173 4.3.2.3 The 2012 Forest Code......Page 174 4.3.2.5 Environmental Crimes (1998)......Page 177 4.3.2.6 Additional Environmental Statutes—Water Law, Climate Change, and Solid Waste......Page 178 4.4 Implementation: The Critical Challenge......Page 179 4.4.1 Executive Branch and Administrative Agencies......Page 180 4.4.2 Prosecutors (Ministério Público)......Page 181 4.4.3.1 Basic Judicial Structure of Brazil......Page 182 4.4.3.2 Environmental Jurisprudence and the STJ......Page 183 4.5 Law in Action: Deforestation and Land Use Change in the Amazon......Page 185 4.6 Conclusion......Page 187 4.7 Selected Bibliography in English......Page 188 Chapter 5: Canada......Page 189 5.2.1 Decolonizing Environmental Law: Indigenous Environmental Jurisdiction......Page 190 5.2.2 Compromise Before Confrontation: Canadian Environmental Federalism......Page 192 5.2.4 Citizens and the State: Environmental Rights and Electoral Politics......Page 194 5.3.1 Command Regulation......Page 195 5.3.2 Information-based Regulation......Page 196 5.3.3 Economic Instruments......Page 198 5.3.4 Civil Litigation......Page 199 5.3.5.2 The Precautionary Principle......Page 201 5.3.5.3 Sustainable Development......Page 202 5.3.5.4 Environmental Justice......Page 203 5.4.1 Institutions......Page 204 5.4.2 Public Enforcement......Page 205 5.4.3 Private Enforcement......Page 206 5.5 Conclusion......Page 207 5.7 Selected Bibliography......Page 208 Chapter 6: People’s Republic of China......Page 209 6.1 Overview......Page 210 6.2.3.1 General Organization......Page 211 6.2.3.2 Environmental Legislation......Page 212 6.2.3.4 Oversight of Government Work......Page 213 6.3.1 Introduction......Page 214 6.3.2.1 The Environmental Protection Law (2014)......Page 215 6.3.3 Environment-related Laws......Page 216 6.4.1 Introduction......Page 217 6.4.2.1 Organizational Structure......Page 218 6.4.2.3 Cadre Evaluation......Page 219 6.4.3.1 Overview of the System......Page 220 6.4.3.2 The Rise of Environmental Public Interest Litigation......Page 221 6.5 IPPEP Model and Environmental Governance in China......Page 222 6.5.1 Major Parties and Players......Page 224 6.5.2 Rules of Conduct......Page 226 6.5.3 The Relationship between the Major Players and the Rules of Conduct......Page 227 6.7 Selected Bibliography......Page 228 Chapter 7: The European Union......Page 230 7.1 Introduction......Page 231 7.2 Constitutional Basis for Environmental Regulation in the European Union......Page 232 7.3 Structure and Substance......Page 234 7.3.1.1 Environmental Principles......Page 235 7.3.1.2 Access to Information and Justice......Page 236 7.3.1.4 Liability for Environmental Damage......Page 237 7.3.2.1 Waste......Page 238 7.3.2.3 Water......Page 240 7.3.2.4 Conservation......Page 241 7.3.2.5 Climate Change......Page 242 7.3.2.6 Air Quality......Page 243 7.4.1 Overview......Page 244 7.4.3.1 Foundational Authority......Page 245 7.4.3.2 Influence in Practice......Page 246 7.4.3.3 Comparative Environmental Law in the CJEU: Modes of Engagement......Page 247 7.6 Selected Bibliography......Page 250 Chapter 8: France......Page 252 8.1 Introduction......Page 253 8.2.2 The Constitutionalization of French Environmental Law......Page 254 8.2.3 Integration of International and European Law into French Environmental Law......Page 255 8.2.4 The Evolution of Environmental Governance in France......Page 257 8.3.1 Environmental Public Law......Page 258 8.3.2 Environmental Private Law......Page 260 8.4.2 Local Governments......Page 261 8.4.4 The Role of French Courts in the Protection of the Environment......Page 262 8.5.1 The Application of the Precautionary Principle......Page 263 8.5.2 Remediation of Ecological Damage......Page 264 8.5.3 The Protection of the Environment through Criminal Law......Page 266 8.5.4 Business: A Major Actor for the Protection of the Environment......Page 268 8.6 Conclusion......Page 269 8.7 Selected Bibliography......Page 270 Chapter 9: Germany......Page 271 9.1 Introduction: The Characteristics of German Environmental Law......Page 272 9.2.1 Environmental Constitutionalism: National Objectives and Obligations to Protect......Page 273 9.2.2.2 Legislative Competences......Page 275 9.2.2.3 Executive Competences......Page 276 9.3 Structure and Substance of Environmental Law......Page 277 9.3.1.1 Air Pollution Control......Page 278 9.3.1.2 The Regulation of Point Sources: Industrial Installations Legislation......Page 279 9.3.1.3 Climate Protection......Page 280 9.3.2 Water Legislation......Page 281 9.3.2.2 Water Protection......Page 282 9.3.2.3 Water Protection and Agriculture......Page 283 9.3.3 Waste Legislation......Page 284 9.3.4 Nature and Species Protection Legislation......Page 285 9.4 Implementation Framework......Page 287 9.5 Conclusion......Page 290 9.7 Selected Bibliography......Page 291 Chapter 10: India......Page 293 10.2 Allocation of Powers......Page 294 10.3.1 The Importance of Policy......Page 296 10.3.2.1 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974......Page 298 10.3.2.4 The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972......Page 299 10.3.2.6 The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986......Page 300 10.4.1 The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change......Page 301 10.4.2 Central Pollution Control Board......Page 302 10.4.4 Key Challenges......Page 303 10.4.5.1 Doctrine of Absolute Liability......Page 304 10.4.5.3 Precautionary Approach......Page 305 10.4.5.5 Sustainable Development......Page 306 10.4.5.6 The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010......Page 307 10.4.5.6.1 Sand Mining......Page 308 10.4.5.6.3 Air Pollution in the National Capital Territory......Page 309 10.4.5.6.5 Ganga Pollution Cases......Page 310 10.6 Selected Bibliography......Page 311 11.1 Overview......Page 313 11.2.1 The Constitution......Page 315 11.2.2 Devolution of Powers......Page 316 11.3 The Structure and Substance of Environmental Law......Page 317 11.3.1 Pollution Control and Hazardous Waste......Page 318 11.3.2 Air Pollution and Climate Change......Page 321 11.3.3 Marine and Fisheries......Page 324 11.4.1 The Merger of the Environment and Forestry Ministries......Page 325 11.4.2 Judicial Enforcement......Page 326 11.4.2.1 Certified Judges for the General and Administrative Courts......Page 327 11.4.2.2 Judicial Decisions and Enforcement......Page 329 11.4.2.3 Judicial Review in the Constitutional Court......Page 330 11.4.2.5 Enforcement of Constitutional Court Decisions......Page 331 11.5 Conclusion......Page 332 11.6 Selected Bibliography......Page 333 Chapter 12: Japan......Page 334 12.1 Overview......Page 335 12.2.1 Constitutional Law......Page 337 12.2.2 The Environmental Basic Law......Page 338 12.2.4 Prefectural and Municipal Planning......Page 339 12.3 Structure and Substance of Environmental Law......Page 340 12.3.1 Nature Conservation......Page 341 12.3.2 Air Quality......Page 343 12.3.3 Noise Protection......Page 344 12.3.4 Waste Management......Page 345 12.3.6 Hazardous Substances......Page 347 12.3.7 Impact Assessment......Page 349 12.3.8 Climate Change......Page 350 12.4 Implementation Framework......Page 351 12.4.1 Civil Liability in Tort......Page 352 12.4.2 Civil Injunctive Remedies......Page 353 12.4.4 State Liability......Page 354 12.4.5 Environmental ADR......Page 355 12.5 Selected Problem: Nuclear Energy Law as Environmental Law......Page 356 12.7 Selected Bibliography......Page 357 Chapter 13: Mexico......Page 358 13.2 Allocation of Powers......Page 359 13.2.2 Human Rights and the ‘Constitutionality Block’......Page 360 13.2.3 Human Right to a Healthy Environment......Page 361 13.2.5 Collective Rights and Access to Natural Resources......Page 362 13.3 Structure and Substance of Environmental Law......Page 363 13.3.1.2 Climate Change......Page 364 13.3.2 Water......Page 365 13.3.3.1 Protected Areas......Page 366 13.3.3.2 Species......Page 367 13.3.4 Waste......Page 368 13.4.1 Access to Environmental Information......Page 369 13.4.2 Access to Environmental Participation......Page 370 13.4.3.1 Environmental Liability......Page 372 13.4.3.3 Collective Amparo......Page 373 13.4.3.4 Environmental Criminal Justice......Page 374 13.6 Select Bibliography......Page 375 Chapter 14: Singapore......Page 377 14.1 Introduction......Page 378 14.2.2 Legal System and Sources of Law......Page 379 14.3.1.2 Pollution from Stationary Sources/Industries......Page 381 14.3.1.3.1 discouraging car ownership......Page 382 14.3.1.4 Air Pollution—Emissions from Other Sources......Page 383 14.3.2.2 Water Management and Reuse......Page 385 14.3.2.3 Water Pollution Laws......Page 386 14.3.3 Waste Management Laws......Page 387 14.3.4 Contaminated Sites......Page 388 14.3.6 Nature Conservation Laws......Page 389 14.3.7 Climate Change and Future Challenges......Page 390 14.4.1 Government Agencies......Page 391 14.4.2.1 In General......Page 392 14.4.2.2 Judicious Siting of Industries......Page 393 14.6 Selected Bibliography......Page 395 15.1.1 Introduction......Page 396 15.1.2 International Law and South African Domestic Law......Page 397 15.1.3 The Bill of Rights, the Environmental Right, and Sustainable Development......Page 398 15.1.4 Other Relevant Rights in the Bill of Rights......Page 400 15.1.5 Distribution of Competences Among National, Provincial, and Local Government......Page 402 15.2.1 The National Environmental Management Act (NEMA)......Page 403 15.2.2 NEMA Principles and Sectorial Laws......Page 404 15.3.1 Co-operative Government in Practice......Page 406 15.3.2 Relevant Governmental Departments—From Integration to Sectorialization......Page 409 15.4 Selected Problem: The ‘One Environmental System (OES)’......Page 411 15.5 Conclusion......Page 413 15.6 Selected Bibliography......Page 414 16.1 Overview......Page 415 16.2.1 Overview of Devolution of Power......Page 416 16.2.2 Constitutional Right and Its Implementation......Page 417 16.3.1 Overall Structure and Principles of Environmental Law......Page 419 16.3.2.1 Air Preservation and Climate Change Regime......Page 421 16.3.2.2 Water and Ocean Preservation......Page 423 16.3.2.3 Soil Environment Preservation......Page 424 16.3.2.4 Chemicals Management......Page 425 16.3.2.5 Recycling and Waste Management......Page 426 16.3.2.6 Wildlife and National Resources Preservation......Page 427 16.4.1 Administrative and Criminal Enforcement......Page 428 16.4.2 Private Enforcement of Environmental Law......Page 429 16.5 Conclusion......Page 430 16.6 Selected Bibliography......Page 431 Chapter 17: United Kingdom......Page 432 17.2.1 The Forces of History......Page 433 17.2.2 External Forces—The Impact of the European Union......Page 435 17.2.3 Internal Forces—The (Weak) Constitutional Basis for UK Environmental Law......Page 436 17.2.4 Internal Forces—Constitutional Complexity in a Devolved UK......Page 437 17.3 Structure and Substance of Environmental Law......Page 439 17.3.2 Air Quality and Climate Change......Page 440 17.3.3 Water Quality......Page 442 17.3.4 Waste Management......Page 443 17.3.5 Nature Conservation and Landscape Protection......Page 444 17.4 Implementation Framework......Page 445 17.4.1 Central Government......Page 446 17.4.3 Specialist Agencies......Page 447 17.4.4 The Role of Courts and Tribunals......Page 448 17.4.4.1 Access to Justice......Page 449 17.4.4.3 Time Limits......Page 450 17.4.4.4 Costs and Funding......Page 451 17.4.5 Enforcement......Page 452 17.5 Conclusion: Fragmentation and Integration? UK Environmental Law in Flux......Page 453 17.6 Selected Bibliography......Page 454 Chapter 18: United States of America......Page 455 18.2.1 Introduction......Page 456 18.2.3 Delegation to Regulatory Agencies......Page 457 18.2.4 Regulation and Private Property......Page 458 18.3.1.2 Implementation Through State Implementation Plans (SIPs)......Page 459 18.3.2 Clean Water Act......Page 461 18.3.2.1 Point Source Regulation......Page 462 18.3.3.1 Solid Waste and Solid Hazardous Waste......Page 463 18.3.3.2 Generators, Transporters, and TSDs......Page 464 18.3.4.1 The Operation of CERCLA......Page 465 18.3.4.2 Liability for the Costs of Response Actions......Page 466 18.3.5.1 A Procedural Statute......Page 467 18.4.1 Agency Authorities......Page 468 18.4.1.2 Challenges to Agency Rule-making and Standards of Review......Page 469 18.4.2.1 Administrative Enforcement......Page 470 18.4.2.2 Civil Remedies: Penalties and Injunctions......Page 471 18.4.3 Citizen Suits......Page 472 18.4.3.2 Alternative to Government Action......Page 473 18.5 Conclusion......Page 474 18.6 Selected Bibliography......Page 475 Part II: PROBLEMS......Page 476 Chapter 19: Atmospheric Pollution......Page 478 19.1 Atmospheric Pollution: Definition and Legal Boundaries......Page 479 19.2 Air Pollution Control in a Transboundary Context......Page 480 19.3.1.1 Regulatory Competence......Page 482 19.3.1.2 Areas of Activity......Page 483 19.3.2.2 Areas of Activity......Page 488 19.3.3.1 Regulatory Competence......Page 491 19.3.3.2 Areas of Activity......Page 492 19.4.1 The Regulatory System of Air Pollution Control......Page 494 19.4.3 Instrument Choice......Page 495 19.4.4 The Role of Courts......Page 496 19.5 Conclusion......Page 497 19.7 Select Bibliography......Page 498 Chapter 20: Environmental Regulation of Freshwater......Page 499 20.1.1 From Working Rivers to Rivers that Work......Page 500 20.1.2 The Emergence of the Normative River......Page 501 20.2.2.1 Introduction......Page 503 20.2.2.2 What is Pollution?......Page 504 20.2.3 National Versus International Regulation of Waste Stream Discharges: Minimal International Law Constraints on National Prerogative......Page 505 20.2.4.2 Water Quality Standards......Page 506 20.2.4.4 The Use of Economic Instruments......Page 507 20.2.4.5 Judicial Actions......Page 508 20.3.1 Recognition Options......Page 509 20.3.2.2 Water Reserves......Page 510 20.3.3 Reservoir Operation or Reoperation......Page 512 20.4.1 Introduction......Page 513 20.4.2 The Ramsar Convention System in Publicly Owned Land......Page 514 20.4.3 The Protection of Wetlands Located on Privately-owned Land......Page 516 20.5 Trends in the Environmental Regulation of Freshwater......Page 517 20.6 Select Bibliography......Page 518 Chapter 21: Land Degradation......Page 519 21.1 Overview......Page 520 21.2 Causes and Effects of Land Degradation......Page 521 21.3.1.1 Introduction......Page 525 21.3.1.2 The UNCCD......Page 526 21.3.1.4 The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change......Page 527 21.3.1.5 Land Degradation as a Common Concern of Humankind......Page 529 21.3.2 Regional Initiatives......Page 530 21.3.3.2 The UN Sustainable Development Goals 2015 and Land Degradation Neutrality......Page 532 21.3.4.1 Introduction......Page 534 21.3.4.2 Land Tenure......Page 535 21.3.4.4 Farming Systems and Land Use......Page 536 21.3.4.5 The Role of Protected Areas......Page 537 21.3.4.6 Physical Planning to Avoid Land Degradation......Page 538 21.4 Concluding Remarks......Page 539 21.5 Select Bibliography......Page 540 Chapter 22: Nature Conservation......Page 541 22.1 Overview......Page 542 22.2.2.1 Notion......Page 545 22.2.2.2 Dimensions of Biodiversity’s Intrinsic Value......Page 546 22.3.1 The Transition from Nature Wonders to Wildlife Conservation......Page 547 22.3.2 Legal Definition and Criteria for Designation......Page 548 22.3.3 Size of Protected Areas and Wildlife Protection......Page 550 22.3.4 Wildlife and Connectivity......Page 553 22.4 Specific Measures for the Protection of Wild Species......Page 554 22.4.1 Legal Status......Page 555 22.4.2 Criteria for Classification......Page 556 22.4.3 The Role of Lists......Page 557 22.4.4 Mechanisms for Protection: General Prohibitions and Limited Exemptions......Page 559 22.4.5 Wandering and Alien Species......Page 561 22.4.6 Trade in Species: The Role of CITES......Page 563 22.5 Wildlife, Property Rights, and Market Mechanisms......Page 565 22.7 Select Bibliography......Page 568 Chapter 23: Regulation of Marine Capture Fisheries......Page 570 23.2 Overfishing and Goals Pursued by Regulatory Systems......Page 571 23.3 Analytical Framework......Page 574 23.4.1 Introduction......Page 576 23.4.2.2 Japan......Page 577 23.4.3.1 The EU......Page 578 23.4.3.2 Japan......Page 580 23.4.3.3 New Zealand......Page 582 23.4.4.1 The EU......Page 583 23.4.4.3 New Zealand......Page 584 23.4.5 Laws and Policies Affecting the Functioning and Effectiveness of Fishing Regulation......Page 585 23.4.6.2 System Specificity......Page 586 23.4.6.3 Specific Shortcomings......Page 587 23.5 Concluding Remarks......Page 588 23.7 Select Bibliography......Page 589 Chapter 24: Genetically Modified Organisms......Page 590 24.1 Overview......Page 591 24.2 Risk Assessment and Regulation......Page 592 24.2.1 Risk Assessment in the EU and the US: Precautionary Versus Permissive Approaches......Page 593 24.2.2 Risk Regulation in the EU and the US: Process Versus Product Regulation......Page 596 24.2.3 From Differences to Disputes......Page 597 24.2.4.1 Brazil......Page 598 24.2.4.2 China......Page 599 24.2.5 Comparative Approaches to Risk Assessment and Regulation of Genetically Modified Foods......Page 601 24.3 Labelling of Genetically Modified Organisms......Page 602 24.4 Intellectual Property Rights and Genetically Modified Organisms......Page 605 24.4.1 Legal Framework......Page 606 24.4.2 Comparative Approaches to Patenting Genetically Modified Organisms......Page 608 24.5 Concluding Remarks......Page 610 24.6 Select Bibliography......Page 611 Chapter 25: Climate Change and Energy Transition Policies......Page 612 25.1 Overview......Page 613 25.2.1.1 Comprehensive Regulation......Page 614 25.2.1.2 Patchworks of Old and New Laws......Page 617 25.2.1.3 Policy But No Laws......Page 619 25.2.1.4 Gestures Towards Policy Only......Page 620 25.2.2.1 Levels: National, Sub-national, and Local......Page 621 25.2.2.3 Branches: Courts and Litigation......Page 624 25.2.3.1 Quantitative Targets......Page 625 25.2.3.2 Pricing Emissions: Taxes and Cap-and-Trade Schemes......Page 628 25.2.3.4 Subsidies and Tax Incentives......Page 629 25.2.3.5 Information......Page 630 25.2.3.6.1 Land Use, Land Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF)......Page 631 25.2.3.6.2 Methane from Solid Waste and Wastewater......Page 633 25.2.3.6.3 High-GWP Substances......Page 634 25.3.1 Scope and Structure of the Governing Law......Page 635 25.3.2 Substantive Provisions......Page 636 25.3.2.1.1 Buildings......Page 637 25.3.2.1.2 Equipment and Appliances......Page 639 25.3.2.1.3 Vehicles......Page 640 25.3.2.2.1 Mandates and Incentives to Ensure Price-competitiveness......Page 642 25.3.2.2.2 Siting of Transmission Lines......Page 643 25.3.2.2.3 Integrating Renewables into Grid Operations and Accounting......Page 645 25.3.2.3 Fossil Fuels......Page 646 25.3.2.3.2 Nuclear Phase-out First......Page 647 25.3.2.3.4 Fuel-switching......Page 648 25.3.2.3.6 Fossil Fuel Subsidies......Page 649 25.3.2.4 Nuclear......Page 650 25.4.1 Supporting Low-Emissions Development......Page 652 25.4.2 Dealing with F-gases......Page 653 25.4.3 Controlling Aircraft and Marine Shipping Emissions......Page 654 25.5.1.1 Performance of Energy Efficiency Measures......Page 655 25.5.1.2 The Role of Circumstance......Page 656 25.5.2 Transferability of Techniques......Page 657 25.7 Select Bibliography......Page 658 Chapter 26: Regulation of Chemicals......Page 659 26.1 Overview......Page 660 26.2.1 What is Chemicals Regulation?......Page 661 26.2.2 Hazard and Risk......Page 662 26.2.3 Data......Page 663 26.3.2 Identification......Page 665 26.3.3 Prioritization......Page 667 26.3.4 Risk Assessment......Page 668 26.3.5.2 Information Tools......Page 670 26.3.5.3 Prescriptive Tools......Page 672 26.3.5.4 Liability Entitlements......Page 674 26.4.1.2 Registration......Page 675 26.4.1.4 Authorization......Page 677 26.4.2.1 Introduction......Page 679 26.4.2.3 Prioritization, Evaluation, and Management of Active Chemicals: TSCA § 6......Page 681 26.4.2.4 New Chemicals and Significant New Uses: TSCA § 5......Page 684 26.5 Concluding Remarks......Page 685 26.7 Select Bibliography......Page 687 27.1 Overview......Page 688 27.2.2 Centralized Versus Delegated......Page 690 27.2.3 Unified Versus Fragmented......Page 691 27.2.4 Integrated Versus Specific......Page 692 27.3.1 Introduction......Page 693 27.3.2.1 Definition of Waste......Page 694 27.3.2.2 Waste Hierarchy......Page 695 27.3.2.3 Waste Streams and Waste Classifications......Page 697 27.3.3.1 Reduction of Waste Generation......Page 698 27.3.3.3 Standards of Waste Treatment......Page 699 27.3.3.4 Prohibitions and Restrictions of Movement......Page 700 27.3.3.5 Extended Producer Responsibility......Page 701 27.3.4 The Move to Circular Economy Approaches......Page 704 27.4 Concluding Remarks......Page 705 27.5 Select Bibliography......Page 706 28.1 Overview......Page 707 28.2 Unity of Aim?......Page 710 28.3 The Definition of Contamination......Page 711 28.4 Liability......Page 715 28.5 Models for Remediation......Page 718 28.6 Concluding Remarks......Page 720 annex—tables for comparison......Page 721 Part III: SYSTEMS......Page 728 SECTION A: INFRASTRUCTURE......Page 730 29.1 Overview......Page 732 29.2.1 Introduction......Page 734 29.2.2 Connection through Soft Law Instruments......Page 736 29.2.3 Connection through Judicial Dialogue......Page 742 29.2.4 Connection through Legal Scholarship......Page 746 29.3.1 Introduction......Page 750 29.3.2 The European Union......Page 751 29.3.3 India......Page 753 29.3.4 Brazil......Page 755 29.3.5 New South Wales (Australia)......Page 756 29.4 Concluding Remarks......Page 757 29.5 Select Bibliography......Page 758 Chapter 30: Distribution of Powers......Page 759 30.1 Overview......Page 760 30.2.1 The Distinction Between Federal and Unitary Systems......Page 761 30.2.3 The Role of Executive Competences......Page 765 30.2.4 Fiscal, Taxing, and Spending Competences......Page 768 30.2.5 The Role of Local Community Governmentsand Self-governing Bodies......Page 769 30.3 General Principles and Concepts of Distribution of Powers......Page 770 30.3.1 Reasons for Decentralization to Local Government......Page 771 30.3.2.1 Transboundary Environmental Effects and Goods......Page 773 30.3.2.2.1 equal market access......Page 775 30.3.2.2.2 level playing field......Page 776 30.3.2.3 Equal Living Conditions and Ubiquitous Safety Levels......Page 777 30.3.3.1 Cooperative and Goal-oriented Steering as a Means of Functional Power Distribution......Page 778 30.3.3.2 The Effectiveness Dilemma of the Cooperative Approach and the Need for Effective Flanking......Page 779 30.3.3.4 The Relation Between Legislative Steering and Local Permitting: Integrated Pollution Control......Page 780 30.3.3.5 The Role of Coordination......Page 781 30.4 Concluding Remarks......Page 782 30.5 Select Bibliography......Page 783 31.1 Overview......Page 784 31.2 Property Paradigms and Environmental Law......Page 785 31.3 ‘Public’ and ‘Private’ Conceptions of Property......Page 787 31.4 Interactions Between ‘Public’ and ‘Private’ Rights......Page 790 31.5 Indigenous Property Systems: Custom and Resource Use......Page 793 31.6 Property Structures and Environmental Stewardship......Page 796 31.7 Concluding Remarks......Page 798 31.9 Select Bibliography......Page 799 Chapter 32: Regulatory Organization......Page 800 32.1 Overview: Regulatory Organization in the Modern World......Page 801 32.2 The Legislative Branch of Government as Regulator......Page 803 32.3.1 Introduction......Page 805 32.3.2 Single Versus Multiple Agencies......Page 806 32.3.3 Integrated Versus Functional Agencies......Page 808 32.3.4 Concentrated Versus Devolved Systems......Page 809 32.4 The Judicial Branch of Government as Regulator......Page 810 32.5 The Fourth (Integrity) Branch of Government as Regulator......Page 814 32.6.1.1 Promoting Environmental Regulation......Page 816 32.6.1.2 Formulating Environmental Regulation......Page 817 32.6.1.4 Enforcing and Shaping Environmental Regulation......Page 818 32.6.2 Specialist ‘Third Party Surrogate Regulators’......Page 819 32.6.2.1 Insurance Companies......Page 820 32.6.2.3 Accredited Environmental Assessors and Development Certifiers......Page 821 32.6.2.4 Standards Organizations......Page 823 32.7.2 Individuals as Regulators......Page 824 32.7.3 Enterprises as Regulators......Page 825 32.8 Concluding Remarks......Page 827 32.9 Select Bibliography......Page 828 33.1 Overview......Page 830 33.2 Sciences and Their Roles in Environmental Laws......Page 831 33.3 The Challenges of the Sciences......Page 834 33.4 ‘Kettling’ Science......Page 836 33.5 The Failure to Take Collective Epistemic Responsibility Seriously......Page 842 33.6 The Failure to Take Legal Culture Seriously......Page 844 33.8 Select Bibliography......Page 848 34.1 Overview......Page 850 34.2 Transnational Environmental Networks......Page 853 34.3.1 Introduction......Page 857 34.3.2 Public/Public Networks......Page 858 34.3.3 Public/Private Networks......Page 861 34.3.4 Private/Private Networks......Page 862 34.3.5 Private/Public Networks......Page 865 34.3.6 Hybrid Networks......Page 866 34.4 Transnational Networks in Comparative Environmental Law: Facing the Challenges......Page 867 34.6 Select Bibliography......Page 870 35.1 Overview......Page 871 35.2 The Role of the Judiciary and its Place Within the Context of Value-driven Decision-making......Page 873 35.3 Responses to the Challenges of Environmental Litigation......Page 874 35.4.1 Introduction......Page 877 35.4.2 Jurisdictional Specialization......Page 879 35.4.3 Judicial Specialization......Page 880 35.4.4 Scope and Hierarchy of the Court’s Review......Page 881 35.4.5 Specialist Costs and Standing Rules......Page 883 35.4.6 Access to Legal and Scientific Advice......Page 886 35.4.7 Bespoke Solutions to Environmental Adjudication......Page 887 35.5 Concluding Remarks......Page 888 annex—visual representation of different adjudicative models......Page 889 35.7 Select Bibliography......Page 891 SECTION B: POLICY INSTRUMENTS......Page 892 COMMAND AND CONTROLREGULATION......Page 894 36.1.1 Concept of Environmental Plan......Page 896 36.1.2.1 Emergence of Environmental Plans......Page 897 36.1.2.2 Consolidation of Environmental Plans......Page 900 36.1.3 Theory of Environmental Plans......Page 901 36.2.1 Formulation of National Environmental Plans......Page 903 36.2.2 Areas Covered by National Environmental Plans......Page 905 36.3.1 Implementation Techniques......Page 909 36.3.2 Legal Effects of National Environmental Plans......Page 912 36.4 Concluding Remarks......Page 913 36.5 Select Bibliography......Page 914 37.1 Overview......Page 915 37.2 Definition and Classification......Page 917 37.3 Layers of Law and Governance......Page 919 37.4 Designation......Page 920 37.5.1 Plans......Page 923 37.5.2 Land Ownership and Local Populations......Page 924 37.5.3 Controls on Activity......Page 925 37.5.4 Positive Conservation......Page 927 37.6 Enforcement......Page 928 37.7 Marine Protected Areas......Page 929 37.8 Challenges for the Future......Page 931 37.9 Select Bibliography......Page 932 Chapter 38: Command and Control Standards and Cross-jurisdictional Harmonization......Page 933 38.1 Overview......Page 934 38.2.1 A Working Definition of ‘Command and Control’ Standards......Page 935 38.2.2 The Enduring Significance of ‘Command and Control’ Standards......Page 936 38.2.3 ‘Command and Control’ Standards as Linked to Self-Regulation and Economic Incentives......Page 938 38.2.4 The Implementation Deficit of ‘Command and Control’ Standards......Page 941 38.2.5 The Conceptualization Gap of ‘Command and Control’ Standards......Page 943 38.3.1 Science as Trans-jurisdictional?......Page 945 38.3.2.1 Introduction......Page 947 38.3.2.2 Key Features of DPSIR......Page 948 38.3.3 DPSIR as a Standard Harmonizer?......Page 949 38.3.4 Limitations of DPSIR in Providing an Integrated View of Environmental Risks......Page 952 38.4 Concluding Remarks......Page 955 38.6 Select Bibliography......Page 956 39.1 Overview......Page 957 39.2.1 Domestic Origins and the Global Spread of Environmental Assessment......Page 959 39.2.2 Theory and the Role of Environmental Assessment......Page 962 39.3.1 Application......Page 964 39.3.2 Screening......Page 966 39.3.3 Scoping......Page 968 39.3.4 Participation......Page 971 39.3.5 Decisions......Page 973 39.3.6 Follow-up and Monitoring......Page 975 39.4 Discussion: Convergence and Divergence......Page 976 39.6 Select Bibliography......Page 980 MARKET MECHANISMS......Page 982 Chapter 40: Environmental Taxation......Page 984 40.2 The Theoretical Foundation for Merging Environmental Protection into Taxation......Page 985 40.3 Environmental Taxation Instruments......Page 987 40.4.1 Allocation of Power Among Levels of Government......Page 988 40.4.2 Procedural Aspects......Page 990 40.4.3 International Trade Limitations......Page 991 40.5 Design Features of Environmental Taxation......Page 992 40.5.1 The Choice of Tax System......Page 993 40.5.2 The Choice of Tax Base and Taxable Event......Page 994 40.5.3 The Choice of Tax Rate......Page 995 40.5.4 Examples of the Diversity of Environmentally Related Taxes......Page 996 40.5.5 Use of the Revenue......Page 998 40.5.6 Designing Around Equity and Economic Concerns......Page 999 40.6.1 British Columbia’s Carbon Tax......Page 1000 40.6.2 Ireland’s Carbon Tax......Page 1001 40.6.5 Canada’s National Carbon Pricing Initiative......Page 1002 40.6.6 The European Commission’s Carbon Tax Efforts......Page 1003 40.7 Concluding Remarks: The Role of Environmental Taxation......Page 1004 40.9 Select Bibliography......Page 1005 41.1 Overview......Page 1007 41.2 The Concept of Market Mechanisms in Environmental Law......Page 1010 41.3 Comparative Law Methodologies and Environmental Law Scholarship......Page 1012 41.4 Promotion of Market Mechanisms in Environmental Law Scholarship......Page 1014 41.5.1 Introduction......Page 1017 41.5.2 The EU Emissions Trading Scheme......Page 1020 41.5.3 Chinese Pilot Emission Trading Schemes......Page 1023 41.6 Emissions Trading Schemes, Typologies, and Comparative Environmental Law......Page 1026 41.9 Select Bibliography......Page 1028 INFORMATIONAL TECHNIQUES......Page 1030 Chapter 42: A Cartography of Environmental Education......Page 1032 42.1 Overview: Politicizing Environmental Education......Page 1033 42.2 Environmental Education and Sustainable Development: A Neoliberal Relationship......Page 1037 42.3.1 Approaches Across Countries......Page 1039 42.3.2.1 Background......Page 1041 42.3.2.2 A Cartography of Environmental Education in Australia......Page 1044 42.3.2.3 Climate Change + Me......Page 1045 42.3.3.2 Environmental Policy......Page 1046 42.3.3.3 Bangladesh Education Systems and Environmental Education......Page 1048 42.3.3.4 Rose’s Story......Page 1050 42.6 Select Bibliography......Page 1051 Chapter 43: Informational Requirements and Environmental Protection......Page 1053 43.1 Overview: The Nature of Informational Requirements in Environmental Law......Page 1054 43.2 The State and Informational Requirements......Page 1058 43.3.1 Introduction......Page 1059 43.3.2 Principle 10 in Regional Hard Law......Page 1062 43.3.3 Key Features of the Aarhus and draft ECLAC Conventions (DEC)......Page 1066 43.4.1 State-mandated Information Disclosure......Page 1069 43.4.2 Voluntary Information Disclosure by Companies......Page 1072 43.5 Concluding Remarks: Emerging Informational Concerns in the Age of Information Technology......Page 1074 43.6 Select Bibliography......Page 1076 44.1 Overview......Page 1077 44.2.1 Eco-label Content......Page 1080 44.2.2.1 First-party and Third-party Labels......Page 1085 44.2.2.2 Public Label Governance......Page 1086 44.3.1.1 Labelling Methodology......Page 1089 44.3.1.2 Label Legitimacy......Page 1092 44.3.1.3 Understanding Consumer Behaviour......Page 1095 44.3.2.1 Equity......Page 1097 44.3.2.2 Consumerism and ‘Strong’ Versus ‘Weak’ Sustainability......Page 1100 44.5 Select Bibliography......Page 1102 EX POST INJURY-BASED MECHANISMS......Page 1104 Chapter 45: Environmental Liability......Page 1106 45.1 Overview......Page 1107 45.2.1 International Regimes......Page 1108 45.2.2.1 Fault-based Liability......Page 1110 45.2.2.2.1 civil law......Page 1111 45.2.2.2.2 common law......Page 1112 45.2.2.4 Neighbourhood Law and Nuisance......Page 1113 45.3.1 General Observations......Page 1114 45.3.2 Causation......Page 1115 45.3.3.1 Damage to Persons, Property Damage, and Pure Economic Loss......Page 1117 45.3.3.3 Ecological Harm and Collective Redress......Page 1119 45.3.4 Natural Resource Damage and Administrative Law......Page 1121 45.4 Concluding Remarks......Page 1122 45.5 Select Bibliography......Page 1124 46.1 Overview......Page 1125 46.2 Linking Human Rights and the Environment......Page 1127 46.3 Historical Milestones in the Development of Environmental Human Rights......Page 1131 46.4.1 Substantive Right to a Healthy Environment......Page 1137 46.4.2 Rights of Nature......Page 1140 46.4.3 Procedural Environmental Rights......Page 1143 46.4.4 Substantive Political Environmental Rights......Page 1145 46.4.5 Socio-economic Environmental Rights......Page 1146 46.5 Critiquing Environmental Human Rights......Page 1148 46.6 Concluding Remarks......Page 1150 46.7 Select Bibliography......Page 1151 Part IV: LEGAL CONTEXT......Page 1152 47.1 Introduction......Page 1154 47.2 Policy and Law-Making in the Administrative State......Page 1156 47.3 Constitutional Environmental Norms......Page 1158 47.4 The Inevitable Locality of Environmental Constitutional Rules......Page 1161 47.5 ‘Non-Constitutional’ Points of Interaction......Page 1162 47.6 Structures of Government......Page 1165 47.7 The Impact of Environmental Law on Public and Constitutional Law......Page 1168 47.9 Selected Bibliography......Page 1170 Chapter 48: Environmental Law and Private Law......Page 1172 48.1 Introduction......Page 1173 48.2 What Is Private Law?......Page 1174 48.3 Two Aspects of the Relationship Between Environmental Law and Private Law......Page 1176 48.3.1.1 Agreements Protective of the Environment......Page 1177 48.3.1.2 Private Legal Actions in Respect of Environmental Harm......Page 1179 48.3.1.2.1 Who Can Sue......Page 1180 48.3.1.2.2.1 Suing the State......Page 1181 48.3.1.2.3 Actionable Damage......Page 1182 48.3.1.2.4.1 Other Possible Variants on Fault......Page 1183 48.3.1.2.4.2 Strict Liability......Page 1184 48.3.1.2.4.3 Special Rules in Nuisance/Troubles Anormaux......Page 1185 48.3.1.2.5 Causation......Page 1186 48.3.1.2.5.1 Factual Causation......Page 1187 48.3.1.2.5.2 Legal Causation......Page 1188 48.3.1.2.6 Remedies......Page 1189 48.3.1.2.7 Particular Problems of Climate Change Litigation......Page 1190 48.3.1.3 Refusal to Enforce Environmentally Damaging Agreements......Page 1191 48.3.1.4 Summary......Page 1192 48.3.2 Environmental Law in Private Law......Page 1193 48.3.2.1 Environmental Crimes as the Basis of Private Law Actions......Page 1194 48.3.2.2 Environmental Regulatory Compliance as a Defence in Private Law Actions......Page 1197 48.5 Selected Bibliography......Page 1198 49.1 Introduction......Page 1200 49.2 Mutual Reinforcement......Page 1201 49.2.1 The Purpose of Criminalization......Page 1202 49.2.2 Modes of Interaction......Page 1203 49.2.2.1 One-Step Criminal Offences......Page 1204 49.2.2.2 Two-Step Criminal Offences......Page 1205 49.2.2.4 Sanction of Last Resort and Enforcement Policy......Page 1206 49.2.2.5 Criminal Law as a Substitute for Environmental Standards......Page 1208 49.3 Conflicts......Page 1209 49.3.1 Strict Liability......Page 1210 49.3.2 Risk-Based Regulation......Page 1213 49.3.3 Interpretation......Page 1215 49.3.4 The Harm Principle and Moral Certainty......Page 1216 49.4 Conclusion......Page 1217 49.5 Selected Bibliography......Page 1218 Chapter 50: Environmental Law and Private International Law......Page 1220 50.1.1 General Context......Page 1221 50.1.2 Corporate Social Responsibility as the General Backdrop of the Analysis......Page 1222 50.2.1 ATS Discovered by the CSR Community......Page 1223 50.2.2 Corporate Liability Under ATS and the Setback Under Kiobel......Page 1225 50.2.3 The ‘Touch and Concern’ Test of the USSC in Kiobel......Page 1226 50.2.4 Post-Kiobel Case-law......Page 1227 50.3.1.1 General Jurisdictional Rule: Article 4 of the Jurisdiction Regulation......Page 1229 50.3.1.2 Special Jurisdictional Rule: Article 7(5) Jurisdiction Regulation: Operations Arising Out of a Branch......Page 1233 50.3.1.6 Applicable Law......Page 1234 50.3.2 Applicable Law for Attributability/Duty of Care, and Compliance Strategies......Page 1236 50.3.2.2 Outside of Competition Law......Page 1237 50.3.2.2.2 applicable law for tortious misrepresentation......Page 1238 50.4 Conclusion......Page 1239 50.5 Selected Bibliography......Page 1240 Chapter 51: Environmental Law and Public International Law......Page 1241 51.1 Introduction......Page 1242 51.2 The Domestic-International Divide......Page 1243 51.3.1.1 Dualism Versus Monism......Page 1246 51.3.1.2 Hierarchy of Norms......Page 1247 51.3.1.3 Self-executing and Non-self-executing Law......Page 1248 51.3.2 Techniques of Transposition......Page 1249 51.4 Effects of International Law Within Domestic Law......Page 1250 51.4.1.1 International Treaties......Page 1251 51.4.1.2 Custom......Page 1252 51.4.1.4 Soft Law......Page 1253 51.4.2.1 Direct Effect......Page 1254 51.4.2.2 Interpretation......Page 1255 51.4.2.3 Non-technical Normative Effects......Page 1256 51.4.3.1 State Authorities......Page 1258 51.4.3.2.1 individual rights......Page 1259 51.4.3.2.2 enforcement......Page 1260 51.5 Drivers......Page 1261 51.7 Selected Bibliography......Page 1264 Index......Page 1266