Research for Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences

Description

This book addresses essential principles of research according to the scientific method for medical imaging technology research. The scope of this book covers the nature of scientific research; quantitative and qualitative approaches essentials; research planning; literature review fundamentals; research methods; data collection, analysis, and interpretation; and communicating research findings. The book meets the educational requirements on Research Principles and Concepts (for entry to practice) of the following professional radiologic technology associations: the American Society of Radiologic Technologists (ASRT), the Canadian Association of Medical Radiation Technologists (CAMRT), the College of Radiographers in the United Kingdom, and radiography societies and associations in Asia, Australia, Europe, and Africa. This is an ideal book for radiologic technologists, nuclear medicine technologists, and radiation therapists seeking to get started in research in their profession. Additionally, biomedical imaging engineering technologists, radiologists, and medical imaging physicists may use this as a “guiding principles” textbook. Preface Acknowledgements Contents Contributor Chapter 1: The Nature and Scope of Research 1.1 Research in Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences: Inclusion in the Curriculum 1.2 What Is Research? 1.2.1 The Scientific Method: Key Characteristics 1.3 The Importance of Research: Evidence-Based Practice 1.3.1 Evidence-Based Practice 1.4 Types of Scientific Research 1.5 The Research Process Cycle: Steps in Conducting Research 1.5.1 Problem Identification 1.5.2 The Literature Review 1.5.3 The Research Purpose Statement 1.5.4 Research Objectives, Questions, and Hypothesis 1.5.5 Research Methodology and Research Design 1.5.6 Data Collection 1.5.7 Data Analysis and Interpretation 1.5.8 Research Report and Evaluation 1.6 Research Ethics References Chapter 2: Quantitative and Qualitative Research: An Overview of Approaches 2.1 What Is Quantitative Research? 2.1.1 Types of Quantitative Research 2.1.1.1 Non-interventional Research Designs Descriptive Research Correlational Research Survey Research 2.1.1.2 Interventional Research Designs Experimental Research Quasi-Experimental Research 2.1.2 Steps in Quantitative Research 2.2 What Is Qualitative Research? 2.2.1 Types of Qualitative Research 2.2.1.1 Examples in Medical Imaging 2.2.2 Steps in Qualitative Research References Chapter 3: Planning Your Research 3.1 Formulating a Research Question 3.1.1 Broad and Narrow Research Questions 3.1.2 Types and Characteristics of Good Research Questions 3.1.3 Research Aim or Objective 3.2 Research Planning 3.2.1 Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks 3.2.2 Questions Within the Research 3.2.3 PICOT Framework 3.2.4 FINER Framework 3.2.5 Which Framework? 3.3 Hypotheses 3.3.1 Falsifiability 3.3.2 Null Hypothesis 3.3.3 Formulating a Hypothesis 3.4 Research Ethics 3.4.1 Respect for the Person or Persons 3.4.2 Beneficence 3.4.3 Non-maleficence 3.4.4 Justice 3.4.5 Broader Ethical Areas for Consideration 3.4.6 Writing Ethics Applications 3.4.7 Ethics and Manuscript Publication 3.5 The Research Proposal 3.5.1 Timelines and Gantt Chart 3.6 Final Words Bibliography Resources Chapter 4: Literature Searches and Reviews 4.1 Literature Searches and Reviews: Overview 4.2 Searching the Literature 4.2.1 Getting the Search Terms Correct 4.2.2 Journal Databases and Search Engines 4.3 A Literature Review Versus Annotated Bibliography 4.3.1 Bibliographic Information 4.3.2 Annotated Bibliography 4.3.3 Literature Review 4.3.4 Advanced Types of Literature Reviews 4.4 Writing the Review 4.5 Acknowledgement of Sources References Chapter 5: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods 5.1 Quantitative Research Methods 5.1.1 Descriptive Research 5.1.2 Correlation Research 5.1.3 Quasi-Experimental Research 5.1.4 Non-equivalent Groups Design 5.1.5 Regression Discontinuity 5.1.6 Natural Experiments 5.1.7 Experimental Research 5.2 Qualitative Research Methods 5.2.1 Phenomenological Research 5.2.2 Grounded Theory Research 5.2.3 Ethnographic Research 5.2.4 Explanatory–Descriptive Qualitative Research 5.2.5 Historical Research References Chapter 6: Data Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation 6.1 Data Collection 6.1.1 Preparation for a Data Collection 6.2 Common Tools for Data Collection in Medical Imaging 6.2.1 Quantitative Methods 6.2.1.1 Dose Measurement 6.2.1.2 Image Quality Measures 6.2.1.3 Assessment of Knowledge or Attitudes 6.2.2 Qualitative Methods 6.2.2.1 Interviews 6.2.2.2 Focus Groups 6.2.2.3 Ethnographic Research 6.2.2.4 Action Research 6.2.2.5 Content Analysis 6.2.2.6 Case Study Research 6.2.2.7 Mixed Methods 6.3 Descriptive Statistics 6.3.1 Presentation of Data 6.3.1.1 Bar Charts 6.3.1.2 Pie Charts 6.3.1.3 Histograms 6.3.1.4 Scatter Plots 6.3.1.5 Box Plots 6.3.1.6 Tables 6.3.1.7 Graphs 6.3.2 Measures of Central Tendency 6.3.2.1 Nominal (Categorical) Data 6.3.2.2 Ordinal Data 6.3.2.3 Continuous Data (Interval/Ratio Data) 6.3.2.4 Mode, Median, and Mean 6.3.2.5 Mode 6.3.2.6 Median 6.3.2.7 Mean 6.3.2.8 Comparison of the Mode, Median, and Mean 6.3.3 Measures of Variability 6.3.3.1 Range 6.3.3.2 The Interquartile Range 6.3.3.3 Mean Deviation 6.3.3.4 Variance 6.3.3.5 Standard Deviation 6.4 Correlation 6.4.1 Correlation and Causation 6.5 Inferential Statistics 6.5.1 The Normal Distribution 6.5.1.1 The Standard Normal Curve 6.5.1.2 Using Standardised Normal Curves to Compare Distributions 6.5.2 Hypothesis Testing and Interpreting Outcome of Statistical Tests 6.5.2.1 Step 1 6.5.2.2 Step 2 6.5.2.3 Step 3 6.5.2.4 Step 4 6.5.3 Sampling Distributions: Parametric (Normal) and Nonparametric (Non-normal) 6.5.3.1 The Uniform Distribution 6.5.3.2 The Exponential Distribution 6.5.3.3 Central Limit Theorem 6.5.4 Making Decisions About Which Statistical Test to Use 6.5.4.1 Step 1 6.5.4.2 Step 2 6.5.4.3 Step 3 6.5.4.4 Step 4 6.5.5 Sample Size (Power) Calculation 6.6 Image Quality Measurement and Comparison 6.6.1 Physical Measures 6.6.2 Psychophysical Measures 6.6.3 Observer Performance Tests 6.6.3.1 Visual Grading Analysis (VGA) 6.6.3.2 Visual Grading Characteristics (VGC) The Area Under the VGC Curve 6.6.3.3 Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Methods The Confusion Matrix Sensitivity and Specificity Calculating Sensitivity and Specificity Positive and Negative Predictive Values Accuracy Plotting the ROC curve Calculating the Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC) Sample Size Calculation for ROC 6.7 Conclusion References Chapter 7: Communicating Research Findings 7.1 Method of Communicating Your Research Findings 7.1.1 Create a Profile 7.2 Audience 7.2.1 Map your Audience 7.2.2 Students 7.2.3 Clinical Professionals 7.2.4 Other Professionals 7.2.5 Institutions/Organizations 7.2.6 General Public 7.2.7 General Comments 7.3 Research Output Types 7.4 Journal Articles 7.4.1 Journal Selection and Criteria for Evaluating a Journal 7.4.2 Journal Article Writing 7.4.3 Review and Revision 7.5 Conference Presentations 7.5.1 Oral Presentations 7.5.1.1 Presentation Submission 7.5.1.2 Preparing the Presentation 7.5.1.3 At the Conference 7.5.2 Poster Presentations 7.5.2.1 Printed Posters 7.5.2.2 Electronic Posters 7.5.3 Online Conference Presentation 7.5.4 Alternate Means of Research Dissemination 7.5.4.1 Websites 7.5.4.2 Visual Abstracts 7.5.5 Advanced Methods of Research Dissemination 7.5.5.1 Textbooks 7.5.5.2 Thesis or Dissertation 7.6 Final Thoughts References Chapter 8: Examples of Published Research Studies in Medical Imaging: A Selected Review 8.1 List of Research Studies 8.1.1 Study 1: Example of a Descriptive Correlational Design in Radiography 8.1.2 Study 2: Example of a Non-interventional Quantitative Cross-Sectional Survey Design Study of Radiologic Technologists in a Computed Radiography Environment 8.1.3 Study 3: Example of a Literature Review (Rob Davidson, PhD) 8.1.4 Study 4: Example of Descriptive Research and Relational Research (Rob Davidson, PhD) 8.1.5 Study 5: Example of a Retrospective Mixed Methods Analysis (Mark McEntee, PhD) 8.1.5.1 Background Insight 8.1.5.2 Method Insights 8.1.5.3 Results Insight 8.1.6 Study 6: Example of Research Using Sensitivity, Specificity and Accuracy to Determine the Performance of a Radiographer Abnormality Detection in Singapore (Mark McEntee, PhD) 8.1.6.1 Background Insight 8.1.6.2 Methods Insight 8.1.6.3 Results 8.1.6.4 Discussion Insight 8.1.7 Study 7: Example of a Randomized Trial in Radiography (Andrew England, PhD) 8.1.8 Study 8: Example of a Non-randomized Trial in Radiography (Andrew England, PhD) Index