Designing for People: An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering

Description

Whether it is the car you drive or the app on your smartphone, technology has an increasingly powerful influence on you. When designed with people in mind, this influence can improve lives and productivity. This book provides a broad introduction on how to attend to the needs, capabilities, and preferences of people in the design process. We combine methods of design thinking and systems thinking to understand people's needs and evaluate whether those needs are met. This book also provides a detailed description of the capabilities and limits of people—both mental and physical—and how these can guide the design of everything from typography to teams and from data visualization to habits. The book includes: • Over 70 design principles for displays, controls, human-computer interaction, automation, and workspace layout• Integrative discussion of the research and theory underlying these guidelines, supported by over 1,000 references• Examples of successful and unsuccessful designs and exercises that link principles and theory to applications in consumer products, the workplace, and high risk-systems We hope this book will give a useful introduction to students entering the field and will also serve as a reference for researchers, engineers, and designers. 1 Introduction 1.1 What is Human Factors Engineering? 1.2 Goals and Process of Human Factors Engineering 1.3 Scope of Human Factors Engineering 1.4 Systems Thinking 1.5 Scientific Base of Human Factors Engineering 1.6 Overview of the Book Questions 2 Design Methods 2.1 Human Factors in Design and Evaluation 2.1.1 System Design Processes 2.1.2 Human-Centered Design 2.2 Understanding Users, Context, and Tasks 2.3 How to Perform a Task Analysis 2.3.1 Step 1: Define Purpose and Required Data 2.3.2 Step 2: Collect Task Data 2.3.3 Step 3: Interpret Task Data 2.3.4 Step 4: Innovate from Task Data 2.4 Iterative Design and Refinement 2.4.1 Providing Input for System Specifications 2.4.2 Prototypes, Wireframes, and Mockups 2.4.3 Supporting Materials and Organizational Design 2.5 Evaluation 2.6 Summary Questions 3 Evaluation Methods 3.1 Purpose of Evaluation 3.2 Timing and Types of Evaluation 3.2.1 Literature Review, Heuristic Evaluation, and Cognitive Walkthrough 3.2.2 Usability Testing 3.2.3 Comprehensive Evaluations and Controlled Experiments 3.2.4 In-service Evaluation 3.3 Study Design 3.3.1 One-factor Designs 3.3.2 Multiple-factor Designs 3.3.3 Between-subjects Designs 3.3.4 Within-subjects Designs 3.3.5 Mixed Designs 3.3.6 Sampling People, Tasks, and Situations 3.4 Measurement 3.5 Data Analysis 3.5.1 Analysis of Controlled Experiments 3.5.2 Analysis of Continuous Variables in Descriptive Studies 3.6 Drawing Conclusions and Communicating Results 3.6.1 Statistical Significance and Type I and Type II Errors 3.6.2 Statistical and Practical Significance 3.6.3 Generalizing and Predicting 3.7 Driver Distraction: Example of a Factorial Design 3.8 Ethical Issues 3.9 Summary Questions I Cognitive Considerations 4 Visual Sensory System 4.1 Visual Environment 4.1.1 Wavelength and Color 4.1.2 Light Intensity 4.1.3 Light Sources 4.1.4 Optic Flow and Ecological Optics 4.2 The Receptor System: The Eye 4.2.1 The Lens and Accommodation 4.2.2 The Receptors: Rods and Cones 4.3 Sensory Processing Characteristics 4.3.1 Visual Acuity 4.3.2 Contrast Sensitivity 4.3.3 Color Vision 4.3.4 Night Vision 4.4 Cognitive Influence on Visual Perception 4.4.1 Depth Perception 4.4.2 Visual Search and Detection 4.4.3 Detection 4.4.4 Discrimination 4.4.5 Absolute Judgment 4.5 Visual Influence on Cognition 4.5.1 Light and Circadian Desynchronization 4.5.2 Meaning and Emotional Influence of Color 4.6 Summary Questions 5 Auditory, Tactile, and Vestibular Systems 5.1 Auditory Environment 5.1.1 Amplitude, Frequency, Envelope, and Location 5.1.2 Sound Intensity 5.1.3 Sound Field 5.1.4 Sound Sources and Noise Mitigation 5.2 The Receptor System: The Ear 5.2.1 Anatomy of the Ear 5.2.2 Masking, Temporary Threshold Shift, and Permanent Threshold Shift 5.3 Auditory Sensory Processing Characteristics 5.3.1 Loudness and Pitch 5.4 Cognitive Influence on Auditory Perception 5.4.1 Detection and Localization 5.4.2 Alarms 5.4.3 Speech Communication 5.5 Auditory Influence on Cognition: Noise and Annoyance 5.6 Other Senses 5.6.1 Touch: Tactile and Haptic Senses 5.6.2 Proprioception and Kinesthesis 5.6.3 The Vestibular Senses 5.7 Summary Questions 6 Cognition 6.1 Cognitive Environment 6.2 Information Processing Model of Cognition 6.3 Selective Attention and Perception 6.3.1 Mechanisms of Selective Attention 6.3.2 Mechanisms of the Perceptual Processes 6.3.3 Implications of Selective Attention and Perception for Design 6.4 Working Memory 6.4.1 Mechanisms of Working Memory 6.4.2 Limits of Working Memory 6.4.3 Implications of Working Memory for Design 6.5 Long-Term Memory 6.5.1 Mechanisms of Long-Term Memory 6.5.2 Effect of Repetition: Habits 6.5.3 Organization of Information in Long-Term Memory 6.5.4 Prospective Memory for Future Actions 6.5.5 Implications of Long-Term Memory for Design 6.6 Divided Attention and Time-Sharing 6.6.1 Task Difficulty and Mental Workload 6.6.2 Task Resource Structure 6.6.3 Confusion 6.6.4 Task Switching 6.6.5 Training and Individual Differences 6.7 Summary Questions 7 Decision Making and Macrocognition 7.1 Macrocognitive Environment 7.2 Levels of Behavior: Skill and Expertise 7.3 Decision Making 7.3.1 Normative and Descriptive Decision Making 7.4 Balancing Intuitive, Heuristic, and Analytic Decision Making 7.4.1 Vulnerabilties of Heuristics: Biases 7.4.2 Benefits of Heuristics and the Cost of Biases 7.4.3 Principles for Improving Decision Making 7.5 Situation Awareness 7.5.1 Measuring Situation Awareness 7.5.2 Principles for Improving Situation Awareness 7.6 Problem Solving and Troubleshooting 7.6.1 Principles for Improving Problem Solving and Troubleshooting 7.7 Planning and Scheduling 7.7.1 Principles for Improving Planning and Scheduling 7.8 Metacognition 7.8.1 Principles for Improving Metacognition 7.9 Summary Questions 8 Displays 8.1 Types of Displays and Tasks 8.2 Fifteen Principles of Display Design 8.2.1 Principles Based on Attention 8.2.2 Perceptual Principles 8.2.3 Memory Principles 8.2.4 Mental Model Principles 8.2.5 Summary of Principles 8.3 Alerts 8.4 Labels and Icons 8.5 Monitoring Displays 8.6 Integrative Displays 8.6.1 Display Layout 8.6.2 Head-Up Displays and Display Overlays 8.6.3 Head-Mounted Displays 8.6.4 Configural Displays 8.6.5 Putting It All Together: Supervisory Displays 8.7 Navigation Displays and Maps 8.7.1 Route Lists and Command Displays 8.7.2 Maps 8.8 Data Visualization and Graph Design 8.8.1 Matching Types of Graphs to Questions 8.8.2 Mapping Data to Display Dimensions 8.8.3 Proximity 8.8.4 Legibility 8.8.5 Clutter 8.8.6 Interactive Data Visualization 8.9 Summary Questions 9 Controls 9.1 Types of Controls and Tasks 9.2 Information Theory: Response Selection and Execution 9.3 Fifteen Principles for Discrete Controls 9.3.1 Attention Principles 9.3.2 Perceptual Principles 9.3.3 Memory Principles 9.3.4 Mental Model Principles 9.3.5 Response Selection Principles 9.3.6 Summary of Principles 9.4 Discrete Controls: Buttons and Switches 9.5 Discrete Controls: Keyboards 9.5.1 Numerical Data Entry 9.5.2 Text Data Entry 9.6 Discrete Controls: Voice Input 9.6.1 Benefits of Voice Control 9.6.2 Costs of Voice Control 9.7 Continuous Control: Position and Track 9.7.1 The Tracking Loop: Basic Elements 9.7.2 Input and Bandwidth 9.7.3 Control Order 9.7.4 Stability 9.7.5 Open-loop Versus Closed-loop Systems 9.8 Pointing Devices 9.8.1 Task Performance Dependence 9.8.2 The Work Space Environment 9.9 Displays for Tracking 9.10 Remote Manipulation, Teleoperation, and Telerobotics 9.10.1 Time Delay 9.10.2 Depth Perception and Image Quality 9.10.3 Proprioceptive Feedback 9.10.4 Design Solutions for Teleoperation 9.11 Summary Questions 10 Human-Computer Interaction 10.1 Matching Interaction Style to Tasks and Users 10.1.1 Understanding Users and Their Tasks 10.2 Interaction Styles 10.3 Theories for Interface and Interaction Design 10.3.1 Goal-directed Behavior 10.3.2 Affect, Emotion, and Aesthetics 10.4 Fifteen Principles for HCI Design 10.4.1 Attention Principles 10.4.2 Perception Principles 10.4.3 Memory Principles 10.4.4 Mental Model Principles 10.4.5 Response Selection Principles 10.4.6 Interaction Principles 10.4.7 Summary of Principles 10.5 Interactive Visualization 10.6 Website and Application Design 10.7 Tangible and Wearable Technology 10.8 Computers in Cars 10.9 Evaluation Criteria for HCI 10.10 Summary Questions 11 Human-Automation Interaction 11.1 Why Automate? 11.2 Types of Automation and Types of Tasks 11.2.1 Types of Automation 11.2.2 Types of Tasks 11.3 Problems with Automation 11.3.1 Automation Reliability 11.3.2 Trust: Calibration and Mistrust 11.3.3 Overtrust, Complacency, and Out-of-the-loop Behavior 11.3.4 Workload and Situation Awareness 11.3.5 Mode Confusion and Managing Multiple Elements of Automation 11.3.6 Loss of Human Cooperation 11.3.7 Job Satisfaction 11.3.8 Training and Certification 11.4 Allocating Functions between People and Automation 11.5 Fifteen Principles of Human-Centered Automation 11.5.1 Mental Model Principles 11.5.2 Attention Principles 11.5.3 Perception Principles 11.5.4 Response Selection Principles 11.5.5 Interaction Principles 11.5.6 Organizational Principles 11.5.7 Summary of Principles 11.6 Increasingly Autonomous Technology 11.7 Summary Questions 12 Engineering Anthropometry and Workspace Design 12.1 Human Variability and Statistics 12.1.1 Human Variability 12.1.2 Statistical Analysis 12.2 Anthropometric Data 12.2.1 Measurement Devices and Methods 12.2.2 Civilian and Military Data 12.2.3 Structural and Functional Data 12.2.4 Use of Anthropometric Data in Design 12.3 Principles for Workspace Design 12.3.1 Clearance Requirement of the Largest Users 12.3.2 Reach Requirements of the Smallest Users 12.3.3 Special Requirements of Maintenance 12.3.4 Adjustability Requirements 12.3.5 Visibility and Normal Line of Sight 12.3.6 Component Arrangement 12.4 Design for Standing and Seated Work 12.4.1 Choosing between Standing and Seated Work 12.4.2 Work Surface Height 12.4.3 Work Surface Depth 12.4.4 Work Surface Inclination 12.5 Summary Questions 13 Biomechanics of Work 13.1 The Musculoskeletal System 13.1.1 Bones and Connective Tissues 13.1.2 Muscles 13.2 Biomechanical Models 13.2.1 Single-segment Planar Static Model 13.3 Low-back Problems 13.3.1 Low-back Biomechanics of Lifting 13.4 NIOSH Lifting Guide 13.4.1 Manual Materials Handling 13.4.2 Seated Work and Chair Design 13.5 Cumulative Trauma Disorders 13.5.1 Common Forms of CTD 13.5.2 Causes and Prevention of CTDs 13.5.3 Hand-Tool Design 13.6 Summary Questions 14 Work Physiology 14.1 Muscle Structure and Metabolism 14.1.1 Muscle Structure 14.1.2 Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism 14.2 Circulatory and Respiratory Systems 14.2.1 The Circulatory System 14.2.2 The Respiratory System 14.3 Energy Cost of Work and Workload Assessment 14.3.1 Energy Cost of Work 14.3.2 Measurement of Workload 14.4 Work Capacity and Whole-body Fatigue 14.4.1 Short-term and Long-term Work Capacity 14.4.2 Causes and Control of Whole-body Fatigue 14.4.3 Static Work and Local Muscle Fatigue 14.5 Summary Questions 15 Stress and Workload 15.1 Environmental Stressors 15.1.1 Motion 15.1.2 Thermal Stress 15.1.3 Air Quality 15.2 Psychological Stressors 15.2.1 Cognitive Appraisal 15.2.2 Ethical Issues 15.2.3 Level of Arousal 15.2.4 Performance Changes with Overarousal 15.2.5 Measuring Stress 15.2.6 Remediation of Psychological Stress 15.3 Life Stress 15.4 Workload and Overload 15.4.1 The Timeline Model 15.4.2 Mental Workload Measurement 15.4.3 Overload Remediations 15.5 Vigilance, Fatigue, and Sleep Disruption 15.5.1 Vigilance and Underarousal 15.5.2 Vigilance Remediations 15.5.3 Sleep Disruption 15.5.4 Sleep Deprivation and Performance Effects 15.5.5 Circadian Rhythms 15.5.6 Circadian Disruption 15.5.7 Sleep Disruption Remediation 15.6 Summary Questions 16 Safety and Accident Prevention 16.1 Costs and Causes of Accidents 16.2 Safety Legislation 16.2.1 Workers' Compensation and Liability 16.2.2 Establishment of OSHA and NIOSH 16.2.3 Product Liability 16.3 Causes and Contributers to Accidents 16.3.1 Worker Characteristics 16.3.2 Job Characteristics 16.3.3 Equipment and Tools 16.3.4 Physical Environment 16.3.5 Social/Psychological Environment 16.3.6 Human Error 16.4 Hazard Identification and Control 16.4.1 Hazard Criticality and Risk 16.4.2 Hazard Identification 16.4.3 Hazard Controls 16.5 Safety Management 16.5.1 Safety Programs 16.5.2 Accident and Incident Investigation 16.5.3 Safety Regulators 16.6 Risk-taking and Warnings 16.6.1 Risk-taking as a Decision Process 16.6.2 Written Warnings and Warning Labels 16.7 Summary Questions 17 Job Design, Selection, and Training 17.1 Job Design 17.2 Personnel Selection 17.2.1 Basics of Selection 17.2.2 Selection Tests and Procedures 17.3 Performance Support and Job Aids 17.4 Supporting People with Disabilities 17.5 Training 17.5.1 Learning and Expertise 17.5.2 Methods for Enhancing Training 17.5.3 Transfer of Training and Simulation 17.5.4 On-the-Job and Embedded Training 17.6 Training Program Design 17.6.1 A Training Program Design Model 17.7 Summary Questions 18 Organizational Design 18.1 System and Organizational Characteristics 18.1.1 Organizational Design 18.1.2 Organizational Culture and Social Norms 18.2 Groups and Teams 18.2.1 Characteristics of Groups, Teams, and Crews 18.2.2 Group Performance 18.2.3 Team Performance 18.2.4 Team Training 18.3 Computer-supported Cooperative Work and Network Enabled Interactions 18.3.1 Decision Making Using Groupware 18.3.2 Computer-supported Team Performance 18.3.3 Difficulties of Remote Collaboration 18.4 Macroergonomics and Work System Design 18.5 Summary Questions Bibliography Figure credits Index