A Modern History of the Kurds

Description

The division of the Kurdish people among the modern nation states of Iraq, Turkey, Syria and Iran and their struggle for national rights continues to influence the politics of the Middle East. David McDowall’s ground-breaking history of the Kurds from the 19th century to the present day documents the underlying dynamics of the Kurdish question. Drawing extensively on primary sources – including documents from Britain’s Public Record Office and interviews with prominent Kurds – the book examines the interplay of old and new aspects of the struggle, the importance of local rivalries and leadership within Kurdish society, and the failure of modern states to respond to the challenge of Kurdish nationalism. In this new and revised edition, McDowall also analyses the momentous transformations affecting Kurdish socio-politics in the last 20 years. With updates throughout and substantial new material included, this fourth edition of the book reflects the developments in the field and the areas which have gained importance and understanding. This includes new analysis of the Kurdish experience in Syria; the role of political Islam in Kurdish society and Kurds’ involvement in Islamist Jihad; and issues surrounding women and gender that were previously overlooked, from the impact of the women’s equality movement to how patriarchal practices within the Kurdish community still limit its progress. The foundation text for Kurdish Studies, this book highlights in detail the changing situation of the Kurds across the Middle East. Cover page Halftitle page Title page Copyright page Dedication Contents Maps Sources Acknowledgements Glossary of Abbreviations Glossary of Middle Eastern Terms as used in the book Foreword to the Fourth Edition Maps 1 Introduction: Kurdish Identity and Social Formation The Kurdish Population The Land The People Language Religion Kurdish Society Sources Book I THE KURDS IN THE AGE OF TRIBE AND EMPIRE 2 Kurdistan Before the Nineteenth Century Early History Chaldiran and the New Border Marches Empire and the Kurds Kurds in the Ottoman–Safavid Struggle Athwart the Zagros: The Houses of Ardalan and Baban The Economy Intellectual Life Kurds beyond Kurdistan Sources 3 Ottoman Kurdistan, 1800–50 Introduction Ottoman Weakness Mir Muhammad of Rawanduz and the Fall of the House of Suran Badr Khan Beg and the Fall of Buhtan Kurds outside Kurdistan Kurds and the Naqshbandiyya In the Growing Grip of European Interests Sources 4 Ottoman Kurdistan, 1850–1908 The Economy of Kurdistan The Political Rise of the Sufi Shaykhs Shaykh ‘Ubaydullah of Nihri16 The Growth of Ottoman Islamism and Creation of the Hamidiya Cavalry36 The Hamidiya and the Armenians Kurds outside Kurdistan Sources 5 The Qajars and the Kurds Introduction Qajar Weakness Kurdish Azerbaijan The Constitutional Revolution, Kirmanshah and the Kurds Turkey, Russia and Iran’s Kurds Sources 6 Revolution, Nationalism and War, 1900–18 The First Kurdish Reformists The Beginnings of Ethnic Awareness Kurdistan and the Young Turk Revolution Iran World War The Armenian Genocide Deportation of Kurds The British Theatre The War’s End Sources Book II INCORPORATING THE KURDS 7 Redrawing the Map: The Partition of Ottoman Kurdistan Introduction British Strategic Concerns The Creation of a Strategic Border in Kurdistan Everything To Play for Kurdish Hopes Dashed The Noel Mission Kurdistan and the Turkish National Movement The Road to Sèvres From Sèvres to Lausanne The Mosul Vilayet Sources 8 The Kurds, Britain and Iraq Introduction Introducing Order Shaykh Mahmud of Sulaimani Shaykh Mahmud’s Second Revolt Promises Betrayed Into the Hands of the Arabs Shaykh Ahmad Barzani Sources 9 Incorporating Turkey’s Kurds Introduction The Kuçgiri Rebellion1 ‘A Mixture of One Muslim Element’ The Kurds under Mustafa Kemal Azadi The Shaykh Sa‘id Revolt25 Suppressing Kurdistan Kurdish Resistance: Khoybun, Ağri Dagh and Dersim The Road to Dersim Economic Circumstances The Survival of Kurdish Folk Islam Sources 10 The Kurds Under Reza Shah Introduction The Story of Simqo Kirmanshah Subjugating the Tribes Sources Book III ROJHILAT (EAST): NATIONALISM IN IRAN 11 Tribe or Ethnicity? The Mahabad Republic Introduction The Road to Mahabad Komala and the New Nationalists The Mahabad Republic Sources 12 Iran: Creating A National Movement Introduction The Locust Years, 1947–78 Socio-economic Change Sources 13 Subjects of the Shi‘i Republic Introduction Why a Negotiated Settlement Failed To Materialize The Republic’s Attitude towards the Kurds Discord Without and Within Defeat and More Discord A Continuing Struggle Sources Book IV BAŞÛR (SOUTH): NATIONALISM IN IRAQ 14 The Birth of a National Movement Under Hashemite Rule Introduction The Early Political Activists Mulla Mustafa Barzani’s Revolt 1943–5 Hiwa and Its Successors The Birth of the KDP in Iraq The Socio-economic Struggle Sources 15 The Kurds in Revolutionary Iraq Introduction Dealing with the Arab Nationalists and the Communists Mulla Mustafa and the Tribes The Road to Revolt Revolt 1961–3 The Ba‘th Government of 1963 Mulla Mustafa’s Triumph over the KDP Sources 16 The Kurds Under the Ba‘th, 1968–75 Introduction The Ba‘th, Mulla Mustafa and the Ahmad–Talabani Group The 11 March 1970 Peace Accord and Its Collapse The Autonomy Law of 1974 The 1974–5 War The Iran–Iraq Agreement, March 1975 The Aftermath of the 1974–75 War Sources 17 The Road to Genocide, 1975–881 Fragmentation and Weakness ‘Ali ‘Askari Kurdish Factionalism The External Threat The PUK Parley with Baghdad Prelude to Genocide The Pro-government Kurds44 The Anfal Operations56 The Refugees The International Response The Disarray of Kurdistan Sources 18 Uprising and Self-Rule The Gulf Crisis Uprising Mass Flight Provide Comfort Renewed Autonomy Negotiations Kurdistan’s Elected Government Economic War Democracy or Neo-tribalism? The Islamic Dimension 1994–9: the Contest for Iraqi Kurdistan Social and Economic Changes Gender Continuing Dependence Sources Book V BAKUR (NORTH): NATIONALISM IN TURKEY 19 The Kurdish National Revival in Turkey, 1946–79 The Revival of Shaykhs and Aghas Migration and Demography The Nationalist Revival Sources 20 The PKK and the Mass Movement The Village Guards The PKK Response Government Countermeasures The International Dimension The Political Arena Extreme Kurdish Islamists Women Fighters The Failure To Find a Modus Vivendi The State Response of Mass Expulsion State Harassment Dealing with Öcalan The Crisis for the PKK The Cost of Repressing the Kurds GAP and the Absence of an Economic Solution Living Together Sources Book VI ROJAVA (WEST): NATIONALISM IN SYRIA 21 Living apart in French and Independent Syria The Beginnings of Kurdish National Consciousness The Murud of Kurd Dagh (‘Afrin) The Jazira, 1920–46 Independent Syria and the Triumph of Arab Nationalism Kurdish Political Activity Dealing with the Jazira and Kurdish Demography Stripping the Kurds of Their Citizenship Cultural Deprivation Serving the State The PKK Conclusion Sources Book VII INTO THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY: THE FIRST TWO DECADES 22 Iran’s Kurds: No Sign of the Dawn Sources 23 Syria’s Kurds: Coming of Age in Civil War The Beginning of a New Era? The Islamic Impulse in Syria The Damascus Declaration Establishment of the PYD The Road to Civil War The International Context The Period of Peaceful Protest The Kurdish Parties’ Response The Kurds and the Rebels The KNC–PYD Conflict The Complications of External Relations The Rise of Islamic State The Siege of Kobani The International Stage Advancing out of Rojava Thrown to the Wolves Arabs, Christians and Kurds in the Federation of Northern Syria Öcalan’s Democratic Confederalism: the Live Experiment Gender A Conclusion? Sources 24 Turkey’s Kurds: The Search for Resolution Öcalan and the PKK Political Representation European Union and the Rise of the AKP (Justice and Development Party) The Kurds and the Copenhagen Criteria AKP’s Failure AKP Defeat of the Kemalists Popular Discrimination The Persistence of Islam among the Kurds The ‘Kurdish Opening’ That Wasn’t Kurdish Islamism Alevis and Zazas The Bonds of Kinship Gender Continuing Economic Failure Turkey and the Civil War in Syria Syria and Kurdish Islam Erdoğan’s Ambition in Conflict with Kurdish Ones The Sultan’s Reign Sources 25 Iraq’s Kurds: From Dream to Disillusionment Introduction Planning a Post-Saddam Era Invasion Securing Kurdistan Positioning Themselves for an Advantageous Constitution The Islamists of Kurdistan Kirkuk and Other Disputed Lands78 The Question of Oil Islamic State Kurdistan in Crisis Politics and Society inside Kurdistan Destroying Democracy and the Nation: Patriarchy and Crony Capitalism175 Gorran Social Transformation Gender Disaffection The Road to Referendum Downfall and Disenchantment Sources Introduction Book VIII DIASPORA KURDS 26 The Kurds in Exile: Building the Nation Introduction The First Post-1945 Exiles Economic Migrants The Refugee Decades, 1980–2000 Into the Twenty-first Century Diaspora Power Sources Afterword Appendix 1: The Treaty of Sèvres, 10 August 1920: Articles Relating to Kurdistan Appendix 2: The Kurds in Lebanon1 Appendix 3: The Kurds of the Caucasus Index