ATLAS OF LYMPHOSCINTIGRAPHY AND SENTINEL NODE MAPPING : a pictorial case.

Description

Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Contents 1: Anatomy and Physiology of Lymphatic Circulation: Application to Lymphatic Mapping 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Physiology of Lymph Flow 1.3 Anatomy of the Lymphatic System 1.4 Lymphatics of the Breast 1.5 Lymphatics of the Skin 1.6 Visualisation of Lymphatics and New Developments References 2: Pathophysiology of Lymphatic Circulation in Different Disease Conditions 2.1 History 2.2 Physiology of the Lymphatic System 2.3 Lymphatic Circulation and Lipid Absorption 2.4 Pathophysiology of Lymph Drainage Failure 2.4.1 Role of Leukotrienes and Inflammation in Lymphedema 2.4.2 Aging of Lymphatic Vessels 2.5 Lymphedema 2.6 Lymphatic Malignancies 2.7 Lymphangiothrombosis and Acute Lymphangitis 2.8 Pathophysiology of Lymphatic Circulation in Systemic Diseases 2.8.1 Obesity 2.8.2 Arterial Hypertension 2.8.3 Atherosclerosis 2.8.4 Myocardial Infarction 2.9 Concluding Remarks References 3: Methodological Aspects of Lymphatic Mapping: Radiopharmaceuticals, Multimodal Lymphatic Mapping Agents, Instrumentations 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Radiopharmaceuticals for Lymphatic Mapping 3.2.1 Radiocolloids and Other Agents for SLN Mapping 3.2.2 Injected Volume and Activity for Lymphatic Mapping 3.2.3 Factors Affecting Radiocolloid Uptake During Lymphatic Mapping 3.2.4 Other PET Radiopharmaceuticals for Lymphatic Mapping 3.3 Iodine-Based CT Contrast Agents for Lymphatic Mapping 3.4 MR, MRL, and PET/MRI Contrast Agents for Lymphatic Mapping 3.4.1 Dendrimers for Lymphatic Mapping 3.4.2 Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Particles (SPIONs and USPIOs) for Lymphatic Mapping 3.5 Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Imaging for Lymphatic Mapping 3.6 Optical Imaging Agents for Lymphatic Mapping 3.7 Multimodal Tracers for Lymphatic Mapping 3.8 Instrumentations for Lymphatic Mapping 3.8.1 Intraoperative Probes for Radioguided Surgery 3.8.2 Portable Gamma Cameras for Lymphatic Mapping 3.9 Near-Infrared (NIR) Imaging for Lymphatic Mapping References 4: Methodological Aspects of Lymphoscintigraphy: Bicompartmental Versus Monocompartmental Radiocolloid Administration 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Methodology of Lymphoscintigraphy 4.3 Imaging for Lymphoscintigraphy 4.4 Qualitative Visual Interpretation of Lymphoscintigraphy 4.5 Lymphoscintigraphy with Stress Test 4.6 Quantitative Lymphoscintigraphy 4.7 Virtual Reality for Preoperative Planning with Lymphoscintigraphy 4.8 PET/CT and PET/MR Lymphoscintigraphy 4.8.1 PET/CT Imaging Protocol of Lymphatic Circulation 4.8.2 PET/MR Imaging Protocol of Lymphatic Circulation 4.8.3 Imaging Interpretation of PET-Based Lymphoscintigraphy 4.9 CT Imaging of Lymph Nodes and Lymphatic Circulation 4.9.1 CT for Lymph Node Assessment 4.9.2 CT Lymphography (CT-LG) 4.10 Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Lymph Nodes and Lymphatic Circulation 4.10.1 Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced MRI of Lymph Nodes 4.10.2 Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Lymphography 4.11 Indocyanine Green Lymphography References 5: Lymphoscintigraphy for the Differential Diagnosis of Peripheral Edema and Intracavitary Lymph Effusion 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Stage O Lymphedema: Latent or Preclinical Stage 5.1.2 Stage I Lymphedema 5.1.3 Stage II Lymphedema 5.1.4 Stage III Lymphedema 5.2 Differential Diagnosis 5.3 Diagnostic Characterization 5.4 Management of Lymphedema 5.5 Lymphoscintigraphy in the Management of Lymphedema 5.5.1 Lymphoscintigraphy for the Differential Diagnosis of Lymphedema 5.5.1.1 Lymphoscintigraphy in Lipedema 5.5.1.2 Lymphoscintigraphy for Predicting the Risk to Develop Lymphedema 5.5.1.3 Lymphoscintigraphy for Assessing the Efficacy of Physical and/or Surgical Treatments 5.6 X-Ray Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 5.7 Virtual Reality for Preoperative Planning Clinical Cases References 6: The Sentinel Lymph Node Concept 6.1 History 6.2 Concept 6.3 Definition of a SLN 6.4 Other Definitions 6.5 Concluding Remarks References 7: General Concepts on Radioguided Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy: Preoperative Imaging, Intraoperative Gamma Probe Guidance, Intraoperative Imaging, Multimodality Imaging 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Preoperative Imaging 7.3 Intraoperative Gamma Probe Guidance 7.4 Intraoperative and Multimodality Imaging References 8: SPECT/CT Image Generation and Criteria for Sentinel Lymph Node Mapping 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The Clinical Problem 8.3 Image Generation with SPECT/CT 8.4 General Indications for SPECT/CT Imaging 8.5 Comprehensive Interpretation of Preoperative SLN Imaging 8.6 SPECT/CT as a Roadmap for Intraoperative SLN Detection 8.7 Imaging Report Combining Planar Lymphoscintigraphy and SPECT/CT References 9: Preoperative and Intraoperative Lymphatic Mapping for Radioguided Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy in Breast Cancer 9.1 Introduction 9.2 The Clinical Problem 9.3 Lymphatic Drainage of the Breast 9.3.1 Lymphatic System of the Breast 9.3.2 Draining Lymph Node Stations 9.4 Lymphoscintigraphy: Technical Controversies 9.4.1 Radiopharmaceuticals 9.4.2 Radiocolloid Injection for SLN Mapping in Patients with Breast Cancer 9.4.3 Preoperative Imaging for SLN Mapping in Patients with Breast Cancer 9.4.4 Contribution of SPECT/CT Imaging for SLN Mapping in Patients with Breast Cancer 9.5 Intraoperative SLN Detection in Patients with Breast Cancer 9.5.1 Combining Existent Technologies with New Modalities for SLN Mapping in Patients with Breast Cancer 9.6 Indications and Controversies for SLN Mapping in Patients with Breast Cancer 9.6.1 Pregnancy 9.6.2 Internal Mammary Chain 9.6.3 Large and Multifocal/Multicentric Breast Cancers 9.6.4 Ductal Carcinoma In Situ 9.6.5 Recurrent Disease and SLN Mapping in Patients with Breast Cancer 9.6.6 SLNB in the Neoadjuvant Setting 9.7 Clinical Impact of SLNB in Breast Cancer 9.7.1 The Paradigm Shift in Axillary Management 9.7.2 SLN-Negative Breast Cancer 9.7.3 SLN-Positive Breast Cancer 9.7.4 SLN-Positive Breast Cancer, Downstaged After Neoadjuvant Therapy Clinical Cases References 10: Preoperative and Intraoperative Lymphatic Mapping for Radioguided Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy in Cutaneous Melanoma 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Clinical Problem 10.3 Lymphatic Drainage of Skin and Lymph Nodal Groups 10.4 Indications and Contraindications for SLNB in Melanoma 10.5 Technical Issues 10.5.1 Radiotracers 10.5.2 Radiotracer Injection 10.6 Preoperative Imaging of SLNs 10.7 Contribution of SPECT/CT Imaging 10.8 Intraoperative Approach 10.8.1 Intraoperative Use of Handheld Gamma Probe for SLNB in Melanoma 10.8.2 Vital Dyes 10.8.3 Intraoperative Imaging 10.9 Practical Considerations for SLN Mapping in Melanoma 10.9.1 In-Transit, Aberrant or Ectopic Lymph Nodes 10.9.2 Head and Neck Location 10.10 Technical Pitfalls in Lymphatic Mapping for Melanoma Patients 10.11 The Dawn of a New Era? Clinical Cases References 11: Preoperative and Intraoperative Lymphatic Mapping for Radioguided Sentinel Node Biopsy in Head and Neck Cancers 11.1 Introduction 11.2 The Clinical Problem 11.3 Indications for SLNB 11.4 Radiocolloids and Modalities of Injection 11.5 Preoperative SLN Imaging 11.6 Lymphatic Drainage and Lymph Node Groups of the Neck 11.7 Intraoperative SLN Detection in the Head and Neck 11.8 Intraoperative Imaging for SLNB in the Head and Neck 11.9 Contribution of SPECT/CT Imaging 11.10 Common and Rare Variants for SLN Mapping in Head and Neck Cancers 11.11 Technical Pitfalls During SLN Mapping in Head and Neck Cancers 11.12 Accuracy of Radioguided SLNB in Head and Neck Cancers 11.13 Reporting SLN Mapping Clinical Cases References 12: Preoperative and Intraoperative Lymphatic Mapping for Radioguided Sentinel Node Biopsy in Non-small Cell Lung Cancer 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The Clinical Problem 12.3 Indications for SLNB in NSCLC 12.4 SLN Mapping Techniques in NSCLC 12.4.1 Non-radionuclide Methods 12.4.2 Radiocolloids and Modalities of Injection 12.5 Preoperative SLN Imaging 12.6 Intraoperative SLN Detection 12.7 Accuracy and Perspectives of Radioguided SLNB in NSCLC References 13: Preoperative and Intraoperative Lymphatic Mapping for Sentinel Node Biopsy in Cancers of the Gastrointestinal Tract 13.1 Introduction 13.2 SLN Mapping in Esophagogastric Cancer 13.2.1 SLN Mapping in Gastric Cancer 13.2.1.1 Preoperative SLN Mapping with Radiocolloid 13.2.1.2 Intraoperative SLN Mapping Using Dye Staining 13.2.1.3 Intraoperative SLN Mapping by Combined Radiocolloid and Staining 13.2.2 SLN Mapping in Esophageal Cancer 13.2.2.1 SLN Harvesting 13.3 SLN Mapping in Colon Cancer 13.3.1 Methods for SLN Mapping in Colorectal Cancer 13.3.1.1 Dye Staining Method 13.3.1.2 Radioguided Method Clinical Cases References 14: Preoperative and Intraoperative Lymphatic Mapping for Radioguided Sentinel Node Biopsy in Cancers of the Female Reproductive System 14.1 Introduction 14.2 The Clinical Problem 14.3 Lymphatic Drainage of Gynecological Tumors 14.4 Indications and Contraindications of SLN Mapping 14.5 Modalities of Radiocolloid Injection 14.6 Preoperative SLN Imaging 14.7 Added Value of SPECT/CT Imaging 14.8 Intraoperative SLN Detection 14.9 Technical Pitfalls in SLN Mapping Clinical Cases References 15: Preoperative and Intraoperative Lymphatic Mapping for Radioguided Sentinel Node Biopsy in Cancers of the Male Reproductive System 15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 Tracer Development: Hybrid Radio- and Fluorescence-Guided Approaches 15.2 Penile Cancer 15.2.1 The Clinical Problem 15.2.2 Indications and Contraindications for SLNB 15.2.3 Radiocolloid and Modalities of Injection 15.2.4 Preoperative Imaging of SLNs 15.2.5 Lymphatic Drainage 15.2.6 Intraoperative Detection of SLNs 15.2.7 Contribution of SPECT/CT 15.2.8 Intraoperative Imaging 15.2.9 Common and Rare Variants 15.2.10 Technical Pitfalls 15.2.11 Accuracy of Radioguided SLNB 15.3 Prostate Cancer 15.3.1 The Clinical Problem 15.3.2 Indications and Contraindications for SLNB 15.3.3 Radiocolloid and Modalities of Injection 15.3.4 Preoperative Imaging of SLNs 15.3.5 Lymphatic Drainage 15.3.6 Intraoperative Detection of SLNs 15.3.7 Contribution of SPECT/CT 15.3.8 Common and Rare Variants 15.3.9 Technical Pitfalls 15.3.10 Accuracy of Radioguided SLNB 15.4 Testicular Cancer 15.4.1 The Clinical Problem 15.4.2 Indications and Contraindications for SLNB 15.4.3 Radiocolloid and Modalities of Injection 15.4.4 Preoperative Imaging of SLNs 15.4.5 Lymphatic Drainage 15.4.6 Intraoperative Detection of SLNs 15.4.7 Contribution of SPECT/CT 15.4.8 Intraoperative Imaging 15.4.9 Common and Rare Variants 15.4.10 Technical Pitfalls 15.4.11 Accuracy of Radioguided SLNB Clinical Cases References 16: Preoperative and Intraoperative Lymphatic Mapping for Radioguided Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy in Kidney and Bladder Cancers 16.1 Introduction 16.2 The Clinical Problem 16.3 Lymphatic Drainage and Nodal Groups in Renal Cancer 16.4 Lymphatic Drainage and Nodal Groups in Bladder Cancer 16.5 Radiocolloid Administration in Renal and Bladder Cancers 16.6 Preoperative Imaging of SLNs in Renal and Bladder Cancer 16.7 Intraoperative SLN Detection Nodes in Renal and Bladder Cancer 16.8 Contribution of SPECT/CT Imaging for SLN Mapping in Renal and Bladder Cancers 16.9 Intraoperative SLN Imaging in Renal and Bladder Cancers 16.10 Accuracy of Radioguided SLNB in Renal or Bladder Cancer Clinical Cases References Index