SCIENCE OF READING a handbook.

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Cover Title Page Copyright Page Contents List of Contributors Preface Acknowledgments Part 1 Word Recognition Chapter 1 Progress in Reading Science: Word Identification, Comprehension, and Universal Perspectives Reading and Reading Science in Historical Context Advance 1: The Word-identification System in Skilled Alphabetic Reading Visual processing and models of eye movements Orthographic processing and models of word identification Advance 2. Comprehending while Reading From global top-down structures to actual comprehension Text comprehension from the bottom up The situation model: Knowledge and inferences Advance 3. Toward a More Universal Science of Reading The brain’s reading network (revisited) Disruptions in the word-identification system (revisited) Concluding Reflections: Learning to Read and Reading Pedagogy The experience-based shift in word reading Teaching reading A final reflection References Chapter 2 Models of Word Reading: What Have We Learned? Reading Aloud: Accounting for Basic Phenomena Simulations of Behavioral Studies: What Did They Show? Regularity effects Consistency effects Nonword Pronunciation Nonword consistency effects Relative difficulty of words and nonwords Length effects for words versus nonwords Semantic effects on word naming Summary Hybrid Models Learning to Read Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 3 Word Recognition I: Visual and Orthographic Processing Letter-Based Word Recognition Letter perception Identifying letters in letter strings Letter positions Orthographic Processing and Word Recognition Visual factors Encoding letter-order for word identification Letter location versus letter order Effects of the number and frequency of orthographically similar words Bridging the Gap with Sentence Reading Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 4 Word Recognition I: Visual and Orthographic Processing: Word Recognition II: Phonological Coding in Reading Evidence that Phonology Is Involved in Silent Reading Reading without phonology? Phonology Activation: Addressed or Assembled? Phonology in words with inconsistent mappings Is there need for an orthographic code in visual word recognition? Computational Models of Visual Word Recognition The Dual Route Cascaded (DRC) model The CDP+ model Triangle model Phonology, Reading, and Neuroscientific Findings Conclusions References Chapter 5 Word Recognition III: Morphological Processing Morphemes as “Islands of Regularity” Morphological Analysis in Skilled Reading Morpheme frequency effects Morpheme interference effects Morphological priming effects Theoretical Accounts of Morphological Processing Mechanisms for Acquiring Morphological Knowledge Conclusions and Emerging Questions References Part 2 Learning to Read and Spell Chapter 6 The Foundations of Literacy Precursors to Literacy Language Input The Home Literacy Environment Shared book reading Parental scaffolding of print knowledge The Limiting Environment Socioeconomic status (SES) Family beliefs and expectations Family risk of dyslexia Complex Linguistic Contexts Summary and Conclusions References Chapter 7 Learning to Read Words What Needs to Be Learned for Skilled Word Reading? Sublexical-Level Learning Learning about letters Mapping sublexical orthographic units onto sounds Lexical-Level Learning Commencing lexical-level learning: The self-teaching hypothesis Building lexical-level learning through experience Experience of the orthographic context Experience of the semantic context Morphology: Connecting print and meaning Interactions between Sublexical and Lexical Learning Interactive processes in a self-teaching context Interactive processes prior to first exposure: Orthographic skeletons Conclusions and Future Directions Acknowledgments References Chapter 8 Learning to Spell Words Writing Systems Elements of Children’s Spelling Development Prephonological writing Phonological writing Beyond Simple Phonological Patterns Word position and surrounding letters Morphology and etymology Children’s Spelling in the Digital Age Theories of Spelling Development Spelling and Developmental Disabilities Implications for Instruction Future Directions References Chapter 9 Individual Differences in Learning to Read Words Methodological Approaches Concurrent Prediction Longitudinal analyses Causal modeling Explanatory Item Response Models (EIRMs) Child- and Word-Level Predictors of Individual Differences Child-level predictors Set for variability Statistical learning Visual attention span Text crowding Print exposure Reliance on alternative pathways Word-Level Predictors Semantic predictors Word consistency/transparency Context-dependent word effects Child-by-Word Predictors Grapheme-phoneme knowledge Word familiarity Orthographic choice Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 10 Teaching Children to Read How Best to Teach Decoding in Whole-Class Settings? The challenges of whole-class delivery Professional development for teachers Issues of implementation Theoretically motivated approaches to teaching of reading A summary of effective evidence-based whole-class teaching Teaching Children with Reading Difficulties How best to teach decoding skills to children with dyslexia? How important is the content and intensity of programs? Promoting phoneme awareness and lexical strategies Teaching about morphemes A summary of effective evidence-based teaching for dyslexia Teaching oral language and listening comprehension A summary of effective evidence-based teaching for language comprehension Conclusions References Part 3 Reading Comprehension Chapter 11 Reading Comprehension I: Discourse A Brief History of Models of Discourse Comprehension Inferences and the construction of meaning Combining online processes and offline representations From single text to multiple texts A Comprehensive Model of Discourse Comprehension The role and nature of inferential processes Standards of coherence: Readers’ criteria for comprehension Current Research Issues Validation Standards of coherence Updating the emerging representation Coherence across multiple texts Reading in digital contexts The relation between text comprehension and the processing of words and sentences Concluding Remarks References Chapter 12 Reading Comprehension II: Sentence Processing Eye Movements and Reading Computational models of eye movement control during sentence comprehension Factors influencing word identification during reading Beyond individual words: Computation of dependencies between words Children’s sentence comprehension: A developmental perspective Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 13 Modeling the Development of Reading Comprehension Theoretical Foundations for Reading Comprehension Development Understanding the Development of Reading Comprehension – Methodological Considerations Understanding the Development of Reading Comprehension – What Do We Know? Is the Simple View of Reading Too Simple? Reading fluency – a bridge between decoding and comprehension? Inference skills Morphology Executive functioning Working memory Metacognitive strategies and comprehension monitoring Motivation The Simple View of Reading – Simple but Complex Relationships between Longitudinal Studies and Theories of Reading Development Future Directions References Chapter 14 Children’s Reading Comprehension Difficulties A Framework for the Study of Reading Comprehension Difficulties Identification and Prevalence of Poor Comprehenders The Identification of Poor Comprehenders: Variation in Selection and Group Matching The Measurement of Reading Comprehension: The Nature and Effect of Differences among (Standardized) Assessments Sources of Reading Comprehension Difficulty Word-identification knowledge and processes Oral language knowledge Higher-level language processes Executive functions, working memory, and attentional resources General knowledge The Dynamics of Language and Literacy Development over Time Conclusions and Future Directions References Part 4 Reading in Different Languages Chapter 15 Reading and Reading Disorders in Alphabetic Orthographies Characteristics of Alphabetic Orthographies The Alphabetic Principle Complexity. Consistency. Models of Word Reading Skilled Word Reading in Alphabetic Orthographies Individual differences in word reading in adults Summary Reading Development in Alphabetic Orthographies Cross-linguistic differences in the development of word-level skills The triple foundation of word reading and spelling skills Predictors of word-level literacy skills across alphabetic orthographies Cross-sectional studies. Longitudinal studies. Meta analyses and systematic reviews of studies of typical and reading disordered alphabetic literacy development. Summary of word-reading development Looking beyond word-reading development Concluding remarks on the universals and specifics of reading in alphabetic orthographies References Chapter 16 Reading and Reading Disorders in Chinese Chinese Language(s) Chinese Script(s) All Chinese Is Not Alike Predictors of Individual Differences in Learning to Read Phonological skills Orthographic skills Morphological awareness Semantic, syntactic, and discourse skills Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) Visual skills Spelling Skills Instruction and Remediation for Word Recognition Reading Comprehension in Chinese Conclusions and Next Steps Correspondence Acknowledgments References Chapter 17 Reading the Akshara Writing System The Akshara Writing System Characteristics of akshara Orthographic learning in akshara systems Inventory size and orthographic learning Reading Development Orthography-phonology linkages Intra-symbol features Reading Development: Word Decoding Word decoding and reading comprehension Word decoding and writing routines Conclusions References Part 5 Disorders of Reading Chapter 18 Acquired Disorders of Reading and Writing Acquired Disorders of Reading and Writing Pure Alexia/Letter-by-Letter Reading Surface Dyslexia Phonological Dyslexia Deep Dyslexia Concluding Comments References Chapter 19 Developmental Dyslexia Developmental Dyslexia Definition of Developmental Dyslexia Common Features of Dyslexia Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia Sex Differences in Developmental Dyslexia Common Co-Occurring Conditions Operational Definitions of Dyslexia Multifactor Models Leveraging Developmental Research Methodologies to Advance Understanding about Dyslexia Screening for Early Identification The Role of Assistive Technology for Individuals with Dyslexia Improving Operational Definitions Acknowledgments References Chapter 20 Comorbidity of Reading Disorders Comorbidity of Dyslexia and Co-Occurring Disorders Prevalence of Dyslexia Comorbidities Models of Dyslexia Models of Comorbidity Comorbidities between Dyslexia and Other Neurodevelopmental Disorders Comorbidity between dyslexia and DLD Comorbidity between dyslexia and MD Comorbidity between dyslexia and ADHD Perspectives for future research Clinical and Educational Implications References Chapter 21 Learning to Read with a Language or Hearing Impairment The Language Basis of Reading Word reading Listening comprehension Differences between written and spoken language Developmental changes Children with Language Impairment: Who Are They? Early language delays Speech versus language impairment Developmental language disorder (DLD) Reading Development in Children with Language Impairment Word reading Reading comprehension Children with Hearing Loss Language impairment versus language deprivation in hearing loss Reading development in children with hearing loss Summary and Conclusions References Part 6 Biological and Social Correlates of Reading Chapter 22 The Genetics of Dyslexia: Learning from the Past to Shape the Future Dyslexia Is a Complex Phenotype Reading Abilities are Highly Heritable Searching for “Dyslexia Genes” From Genes to Function: Neuronal Migration and Cilia The GWAS Era GWAS for Dyslexia and Reading Abilities Rare Variants Polygenic Risk Scores Conclusions Acknowledgments References Chapter 23 Genetic and Environmental Influences on Learning to Read Overview of Behavior Genetic Methods Genetic and Environmental Influences on Reading Reading (Dis)ability Multivariate Analyses Developmental Studies Specific Environments and Gene-Environment Interplay Conclusion and Future Directions References Chapter 24 The Neurobiology of Literacy The Methods of Modern Neuroscience Measuring brain activity Measuring brain anatomy The Neural Circuitry of Skilled Reading Visual processing Language processing Development of the Brain’s Reading Circuitry Neurobiological Differences in Developmental Dyslexia Re-examining the question of causality in dyslexia Conclusions References Glossary Index EULA